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Caring for patients with progressive illness who need symptomatic and palliative care involves professionals as well as non-professionals. Within the variety of settings that may exist around a patient, education will be constantly needed. A limited systematic review was therefore conducted in order to highlight factors that influence informal adult education.Methods Eight databases (covering all the years each database covered up to present date), the internet and twenty-two journals were searched. If not available on line, the journals were hand searched. Keywords were 'professional-instruction-evidence', combined. The search was augmented by contacting researchers and authors. We included studies describing any adult education setting outside the formally established educational setting (such as classroom/school/university). Outcomes were related to individual responses, not to groups as a whole. We excluded studies including children or those carried out in classroom settings, as well as studies where the outcome referred to the group as a whole. Data were extracted into tables and contrasted, drawing particularly on studies from health care settings. Studies were graded according to their: 1) relevance by using an adjusted Signal score and 2) level of evidence.Results A total of 81 articles and reviews were found. From these, 28 studies and 5 Cochrane reviews were included. The studies and reviews reflect a spread in design, settings as well as origin. All continents except South America were represented. Many studies indicated that a multi-faceted, personally tailored educational approach gives the best results. This finding was corroborated by the Cochrane reviews. A common finding was that transport (to the educational arena) emerged as an important factor.Conclusions Multifaceted education, which includes the use of various media, and which is personally tailored is most effective. Examples are such as a combination of verbal and written presentations including information forms, leaflets, alongside a demonstration of practical skills in a real life situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mepacrine (quinacrine) has in a number of studies been shown to protect the heart from ischemic injury, a protection commonly claimed to be due to inhibition of phospholipase A2. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of mepacrine 1 μM on isolated, buffer perfused rat hearts subjected to 60 min hypoxia and 30 min reoxygenation. We also wanted to clarify whether any cardioprotective effect was due to inhibition of phospholipase A2 or to other effects of the drug. Mepacrine led to a substantial fall in left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP) and coronary flow (CF) during normoxic perfusion. Treated hearts showed less increase in LVEDP and less fall in LVDP during the hypoxic period, and significantly fewer hearts stopped beating compared to untreated controls. Release of CK during hypoxia and reoxygenation was reduced in treated hearts compared to controls (19.9±3.8 vs. 73.1±13.3 IU, p<0.05). Lipid analyses of the myocardium showed a significant increase in the total amount of non esterified fatty acids (NEFA) in both untreated and mepacrine treated hypoxic hearts compared to normoxic controls, but to a significantly lower level in the mepacrine treated hearts. However contribution of polyunsaturated NEFAs to total NEFAs did not differ between the groups. Also, neither total amount of fatty acids nor amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids obtained from the 2-position of the phospholipid fraction differed between the treated and untreated groups. In an enzyme assay, mepacrine 1 μM did not inhibit phospholipase A2 activity. We conclude that in our model mepacrine protects the heart from hypoxic injury, but probably by another mechanism than inhibition of phospholipase A2 induced membrane damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inhibition of Na/H exchange with amiloride analogues has been shown to offer functional protection during ischemia and reperfusion and reduce infarct size in isolated rat hearts and intact pigs. The aim of the present study was to examine if pre- or postischemic treatment with ethylisopropylamiloride (EIPA), a selective Na/H exchange inhibitor, could reduce infarct size in an in situ rabbit model of regional ischemia and reperfusion. Anesthetized, open-chest rabbits were subjected to 30 min of regional ischemia and 180 min of reperfusion. The risk zone was determined by fluorescent particles, and infarct size was determined by TTC staining. Preischemic treatment with EIPA (0.65 mg/kg) significantly reduced infarct size from 45.8±3.5% of the risk zone in the control group to 10.6±3.1% (p<0.01). EIPA-treatment during the first part of the reperfusion period did not reduced infarct size compared to controls (41.9±3.5%). We conclude that EIPA, when administered prior to ischemia, reduces infarct size in the rabbit heart in situ, a protection most likely due to inhibition of Na/H exchange. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Background: The aim of this study was to analyse whether there are patient related or geographic differences in the use of catheter ablation among atrial fibrillation patients in Norway., Methods: National population-based data on individual level of all Norwegians aged 25 to 75 diagnosed with atrial fibrillation from 2008 to 2017 were used to study the proportion treated with catheter ablation. Survival analysis, by Cox regression with attained age as time scale, separately by gender, was applied to examine the associations between ablation probability and educational level, income level, place of residence, and follow-up time., Results: Substantial socioeconomic and geographic variation was documented. Atrial fibrillation patients with high level of education and high income were more frequently treated with ablation, and the education effect increased with increasing age. Patients living in the referral area of St. Olavs Hospital Trust had around three times as high ablation rates as patients living in the referral area of Finnmark Hospital Trust., Conclusions: Differences in health literacy, patient preference and demands are probably important causes of socioeconomic variation, and studies on how socioeconomic status influences the choice of treatment are warranted. Some of the geographic variation may reflect differences in ablation capacity. However, geographic variation related to differences in clinical practice and provider preferences implies a need for clearer guidelines, both at the specialist level and at the referring level., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Background: Patient readmissions may be an indication of inappropriate patient care pathways or quality failure. The aim of the study was to determine whether we could identify improvement areas by reviewing 50 non-planned readmissions., Material and Method: We reviewed 50 consecutive non-planned readmissions in the Department of Cardiology at the University Hospital of North Norway. The medical records were reviewed based on a simplified version of the '50 most recent deaths' methodology., Results: Altogether 29 patients had at least one extrinsic risk factor for readmission, the most frequent of which were lack of post-discharge follow-up and failure to transfer information to the municipal health service. Insufficient registration and follow-up of abnormal blood test results, new symptoms immediately before discharge, and missing information in discharge summaries and for patients were other risk factors for readmission., Interpretation: Review of readmissions can serve as an instrument to identify areas for improvement of treatment quality in hospitals. Failure in communication between the hospital, municipal health service and patient was the main contributory factor for readmissions.

Immunological abnormalities have been demonstrated in several psychiatric disorders. Predominantly, studies have focused on younger adults, and research on elderly psychiatric in-patients is scant. In this naturalistic study, we investigated changes in cytokine levels during the treatment of diagnostically unselected elderly psychiatric in-patients, and whether these changes could be related to clinical outcomes. Clinical variables, demographic data, lifestyle data, and blood samples, including 27 plasma cytokines representing a broad spectrum of inflammatory mediators, were collected from 81 patients, 60 years and older, at admission and discharge. A subgroup of 49 patients also completed a self-reported clinical, psychiatric status form, indicating their level of recovery during hospitalisation. Statistical analyses demonstrated that a broad range of cytokines fell during treatment, and the fall was associated with clinical improvement, irrespective of psychiatric and somatic diagnoses. Exploiting cytokines as biomarkers of clinical traits might to be of limited use in a general population of elderly psychiatric in-patients as the field stands now., (Copyright © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: Decentralised services through outreach clinics or modern technology reduce patient travel time and cost to society. Telemedicine consultation through videoconference is one such modality. Here, we compared patient-reported health outcomes and satisfaction between video-assisted remote and standard face-to-face orthopaedic consultations., Methods: This randomised controlled trial included two parallel groups: (1) patients receiving video-assisted remote consultation at a regional medical centre (RMC); and (2) patients receiving standard consultation at the orthopaedic outpatient clinic of the University Hospital of North Norway (UNN). This study included patients referred to or scheduled for a consultation at the orthopaedic outpatient clinic. After each consultation, patient satisfaction was determined using patient-completed questionnaires containing questions on patient-reported health (three-level European quality of life five-dimension index (EQ-5D-3L)/European quality of life visual analogue scale (EQ-VAS)) and questions from a validated OutPatient Experiences Questionnaire (OPEQ)., Results: This study included 389 patients, of which 199 received remote consultation and 190 received standard consultation (total of 559 consultations). In all, 99% RMC-randomised patients and 99% UNN-randomised patients evaluated the consultation as very satisfactory or satisfactory. Moreover, 86% RMC-randomised patients preferred video-assisted consultation as the next consultation. No difference was observed in patient-reported health after 12 months between the two groups. EQ-5D index scores were 0.77 and 0.75 for RMC- and UNN-randomised patients, respectively ( p  = 0.42)., Discussion: We did not observe any difference in patient-reported satisfaction and health (EQ-5D/EQ-VAS) between video-assisted and standard consultations, suggesting that video-assisted remote consultation can be safely offered to some orthopaedic patients. Moreover, a significantly high proportion of patients selected video-assisted remote consultation as their next consultation, thus strengthening the findings of this study. However, economic aspects should be assessed before widely recommending video-assisted consultation.

Background: Telemedicine consultations using real-time videoconferencing has the potential to improve access and quality of care, avoid patient travels, and reduce health care costs., Objective: The aim of this study was to examine the cost-effectiveness of an orthopedic videoconferencing service between the University Hospital of North Norway and a regional medical center in a remote community located 148 km away., Methods: An economic evaluation based on a randomized controlled trial of 389 patients (559 consultations) referred to the hospital for an orthopedic outpatient consultation was conducted. The intervention group (199 patients) was randomized to receive video-assisted remote orthopedic consultations (302 consultations), while the control group (190 patients) received standard care in outpatient consultation at the hospital (257 consultations). A societal perspective was adopted for calculating costs. Health outcomes were measured as quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) gained. Resource use and health outcomes were collected alongside the trial at baseline and at 12 months follow-up using questionnaires, patient charts, and consultation records. These were valued using externally collected data on unit costs and QALY weights. An extended sensitivity analysis was conducted to address the robustness of the results., Results: This study showed that using videoconferencing for orthopedic consultations in the remote clinic costs less than standard outpatient consultations at the specialist hospital, as long as the total number of patient consultations exceeds 151 per year. For a total workload of 300 consultations per year, the annual cost savings amounted to €18,616. If costs were calculated from a health sector perspective, rather than a societal perspective, the number of consultations needed to break even was 183., Conclusions: This study showed that providing video-assisted orthopedic consultations to a remote clinic in Northern Norway, rather than having patients travel to the specialist hospital for consultations, is cost-effective from both a societal and health sector perspective. This conclusion holds as long as the activity exceeds 151 and 183 patient consultations per year, respectively., Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00616837; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00616837 (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/762dZPoKX)., (©Astrid Buvik, Trine S Bergmo, Einar Bugge, Arvid Smaabrekke, Tom Wilsgaard, Jan Abel Olsen. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (http://www.jmir.org), 19.02.2019.)

Background: There is a paucity of studies on inflammatory markers in elderly psychiatric patients. Hence, our study was undertaken to investigate cytokines as biomarkers in diagnostically unselected elderly patients admitted to a psychiatric hospital., Methods: Demographic data, clinical data and blood samples, including 27 cytokines, were collected from 98 patients above 60 years, consecutively admitted to a psychiatric hospital in Tromsø, Norway (69°N)., Results: The most common diagnosis was Recurrent depressive disorder (26.5%), the second most common was dementia in Alzheimer's disease (20.4%). The most frequent somatic disease was cardiovascular disease (28%). No statistical association (p < 0.01) was found between cytokines and gender, age, BMI, anti-inflammatory drugs, psychotropic drugs, reason for admittance, smoking, vitamin supplements, alcohol consumption, length of stay, somatic disease (present/not-present) or psychiatric diagnoses. However, when allocating patients to two groups, depression and no depression, we found higher levels of 10 cytokines in the no depression group (FDR-p < 0.0044). Possibly, this could in part be explained by the higher prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and dementia in the no depression group, as these factors were significant predictors of patients being categorized as not depressed in a logistic regression. In addition, other unknown factors might have contributed to the association between no depression and elevated cytokines. On the other hand, the high level of psychiatric and somatic comorbidity in the study population may have led to increased levels of cytokines in general, possibly diluting the potential effect of other factors, depression included, on the cytokine levels. The size of the study, and particularly the size of the subgroups, represents a limitation of the study, as do the general heterogeneity and the lack of a control group., Conclusions: There was no significant difference in cytokine levels between various psychiatric diagnoses in hospitalized elderly psychiatric patients. This indicates that previous findings of correlations between cytokines and various psychiatric disorders in highly selected adult cases might not be applicable to elderly psychiatric inpatients. Further immunological studies are needed on gerontopsychiatric patients in general and gerontopsychiatric patients with specific disorders, preferably with patients that are physically healthy., Trial Registration: Retrospectively registered in the ISRCTN registry study, with study ID ISRCTN71047363 .

Background: Clozapine is the archetypical atypical antipsychotic, its primary indication being treatment resistant schizophrenia. Severe side effects caused by clozapine, including leukopenia, agranulocytosis, and myocarditis, are well known. A rarely described side effect is concurrent perimyocarditis and parenchymal lung disease., Case Presentation: A previously physically healthy 23-year-old male Caucasian that suffered from schizophrenia presented with flu-like symptoms 1 week after starting clozapine treatment. Treatment with clozapine was discontinued. He developed respiratory distress. Investigations showed significant parenchymal infiltration in both of the lungs, pericardial fluid, and heart failure. He initially received treatment for suspected malignant neuroleptic syndrome and later for suspected infection, but these tentative diagnoses were not confirmed. The patient's condition gradually improved. In retrospect, clozapine-induced parenchymal lung disease and perimyocarditis were deemed the most probable causes., Conclusions: Concurrent perimyocarditis and parenchymal lung disease are rare side effects of clozapine. Clozapine-induced disease in general is considered an exclusion diagnosis. Lacking a verifiable diagnosis when suspecting a side effect of clozapine, clinicians might treat the most likely and serious condition presenting and consider discontinuing clozapine until the diagnostic uncertainty is reasonably resolved.

Background: Decentralised services using outreach clinics or modern technology are methods to reduce both patient transports and costs to the healthcare system. Telemedicine consultations via videoconference are one such modality. Before new technologies are implemented, it is important to investigate both the quality of care given and the economic impact from the use of this new technology. The aim of this clinical trial was to study the quality of planned remote orthopaedic consultations by help of videoconference., Method: We performed a randomised controlled trial (RCT) with two parallel groups: video-assisted remote consultations at a regional medical centre (RMC) as an intervention versus standard consultation in the orthopaedic outpatient clinic at the University Hospital of North Norway (UNN) as a control. The participants were patients referred to or scheduled for a consultation at the orthopaedic outpatient clinic. The orthopaedic surgeons evaluated each consultation they performed by completing a questionnaire. The primary outcome measurement was the difference in the sum score calculated from this questionnaire, which was evaluated by the non-inferiority of the intervention group. The study design was based on the intention to treat principle. Ancillary analyses regarding complications, the number of consultations per patient, operations, patients who were referred again and the duration of consultations were performed., Results: Four-hundred patients were web-based randomised. Of these, 199 (98 %) underwent remote consultation and 190 (95 %) underwent standard consultation. The primary outcome, the sum score of the specialist evaluation, was significantly lower (i.e. 'better') at UNN compared to RMC (1.72 versus 1.82, p = 0.0030). The 90 % confidence interval (CI) for the difference in score (0.05, 0.17) was within the non-inferiority margin. The orthopaedic surgeons involved evaluated 98 % of the video-assisted consultations as 'good' or 'very good'. In the ancillary analyses, there was no significant difference between the two groups., Conclusions: This study supports the argument that it is safe to offer video-assisted consultations for selected orthopaedic patients. We did not find any serious events related to the mode of consultation. Further assessments of the economic aspects and patient satisfaction are needed before we can recommend its wider application., Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT00616837.

Hypothermia-rewarming of the heart results in contractile dysfunction under in vitro as well as in vivo conditions. Increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation and calcium overload are proposed mechanisms. In the first protocol of this study, the effect of putative phospholipase and calcium channel modulator mepacrine during deep hypothermia (4 h 14 degrees C) plus rewarming was tested in an isolated perfused rat heart model previously reported not to involve increase in lipid peroxides. Contractile function was measured under isovolumetric conditions using an intra-ventricular balloon connected to a transducer and recording system. Mepacrine completely reversed hypothermia-rewarming induced contractile failure in this model (LV dP/dt(max): 3236+/-517 vs. 1058+/-185 mmHg/s in untreated hearts). In the second part of the study, lipid peroxidation of the heart was examined in vivo in anesthetized rats subjected to 4h of deep hypothermia followed by rewarming. In this model recovery of heart function judged by cardiac output is decreased whereas blood pressure and heart rate recover fully. Peroxy conjugated diene isomers of unsaturated fatty acids were measured in heart phospholipids. The composition of the non-esterified fatty acids and the phospholipid fatty acid pool was examined in order to reveal signs of membrane remodeling. The results demonstrated no significant changes in phospholipid peroxidation after rewarming (91.07+/-5.23 vs. 88.63+/-7.73 nmol/g dry wt. in control). There was significant relative reduction in the content of arachidonic acid in the phospholipid fraction (29.55+/-1.65 vs. 24.76+/-1.48%). There was marked decrease in non-esterified fatty acids in myocardial tissue (1992+/-291 vs. 1069+/-189 nmol/g dry wt.), but a significant relative increase in arachidonic acid (20:4) in this fraction (3.46+/-0.42 vs. 4.99+/-0.30%). In conclusion, rewarming from deep hypothermia is not associated with increased phospholipid peroxidation. There is, however, a significant remodeling of the phospholipid fraction of myocardial lipids in vivo probably as a result of receptor or calcium stimulated phospholipase activity. Calcium or calcium stimulated phospholipase activity could contribute to posthypothermic contractile dysfunction.

Objective: To perform a systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on catheter ablation for atrial fibrillation (AF)., Background: Radiofrequency catheter (RF)-ablation around pulmonary vein ostia and in left atrium may reduce or prevent recurrence of AF, as documented in observational studies and registry reports; however, few RCTs are available., Methods: Using relevant search phrases, Cochrane Library, MEDLINE and EMBASE were searched for RCTs, last time in May 2007. Titles and abstracts were screened. When entry criteria were fulfilled, full-text papers were read and graded according to quality and relevance., Results: One thousand and ninety four abstracts were evaluated, and five RCTs included (578 randomized patients). The studies had moderate quality and relevance, but the results were consistent: ablation is better than drug treatment in preventing AF recurrence; the relative risk (95% CI)) one year after ablation ranged from 0.20 (0.08-0.51) to 0.62 (0.39-0.99)., Conclusions: Results from observational and registry studies are confirmed: RF-ablation reduces recurrence rate of AF, and can be done with few serious complications. Limitations are few patients>70 years, and only one year follow-up.

In a longitudinal population-based ultrasound survey, we evaluated the reproducibility of carotid plaque detection, off-line vs. online visual classification of plaque echogenicity and computer-assisted plaque echogenicity (grey-scale median, GSM) classification and plaque area measurements. The number of paired observations in the reproducibility analyses was 107 in the baseline study and 83 in the follow-up study. In addition, 198 and 222 images were selected from the baseline and the follow-up study for GSM- and plaque-area analyses. The total number of plaque images (11,160) was used to obtain comparative reference values. Despite good agreement in the reproducibility study (kappa values ranging from 0.52 to 0.57), there was a substantial drift in online visual classification of plaque echogenicity during the survey period. Inter- and intraobserver agreement on computer-assisted GSM classification was substantial, with kappa values (95% CI) of 0.77 (0.73 to 0.80) and 0.79 (0.75 to 0.84), respectively. A systematic bias in plaque area measurements was observed. Visual online classification may introduce systematic measurement errors that are not intercepted in a reproducibility study of restricted duration. Computer-assisted off-line classification had better reproducibility. However, the method is influenced by measurement errors, both in the outlining of the plaque and in the standardization procedure.

Objective: Linear atrial radiofrequency lesions have been used effectively for the treatment of atrial fibrillation. In most cases an endocardial approach has been suggested. A method for epicardial placement of lesions would reduce the complexity of these procedures. We compared lesions created in ovine hearts in vivo using irrigated bipolar or unipolar handheld radiofrequency ablation devices., Methods: Radiofrequency lesions were produced around a left pulmonary vein, around the left atrial appendage and in the free wall of the right ventricle in ovine hearts. All lesions were created in the beating heart. A bipolar clamping device (n = 7) or a handheld unipolar device (n = 6) was used. Measurements of local electrograms and pacing thresholds were performed before and after ablation at each site to assess the electrical integrity of lesions. Tetrazolium and digital image analysis were used to assess lesion geometry., Results: In atrial tissue continuous transmural lesions were achieved more often with the bipolar than with the unipolar device (92.3 vs. 33.3%, P < 0.02). In atrial tissue the reduction in signal amplitude caused by the lesions was significantly larger with the bipolar than the unipolar device (87.6+/-9.4% vs. 60.6+/-23.7% reduction, P < 0.01). There was a significant relationship between loss of pacing capture and lesion transmurality (P < 0.05). The bipolar device created narrower lesions than the unipolar device (4.1+/-0.9 mm vs. 5.9+/-2.1 mm, P < 0.001)., Conclusions: The bipolar clamping device produces narrower lesions which are more likely to be transmural and lead to electrical isolation of ablated tissue than those produced by the unipolar device. However, both devices failed to consistently produce transmural lesions using the epicardial beating heart technique studied, particularly in thicker tissues. High output pacing within the ablated tissue partially predicts lesion transmurality and be a guide to the need for further ablation. However, endocardial ablation or transmural bipolar ablation are likely to remain the techniques of choice for linear radiofrequency ablation in the atria until improved techniques are developed.

Background and Purpose: Activation of monocytes and differentiation into lipid-laden macrophages are fundamental events in generation of atherosclerotic lesions. There exist few data on monocyte activity and the risk for atherosclerosis. In this prospective population-based study, we examined whether monocyte count in blood is a predictor of future plaque formation in persons without pre-existing carotid atherosclerosis., Methods: At baseline, we measured monocyte count, white cell count (WCC), fibrinogen, intima-media thickness (IMT), and traditional cardiovascular risk factors in 2610 men and women aged 25 to 82 years who on ultrasound had no plaque in their right carotid artery. After 7 years of follow-up, a new ultrasound screening was performed and the number of novel plaques was grouped as none, 1 plaque, and 2 or more plaques., Results: In multivariate analysis, monocyte count, age, sex, total cholesterol, current smoking, systolic blood pressure, and IMT were independent predictors of novel plaque formation. No significant association was found between plaque formation and either WCC or fibrinogen. For 1 standard deviation (0.17x10(9)) increase in monocyte count, the risk of being in a higher plaque category increased by 18% (OR, 1.18; 95% CI, 1.08 to 1.29). In the highest monocyte quartile, the risk for having plaque compared with the lowest quartile was 1.85 (OR) (95% confidence interval, 1.41 to 2.43). Repeating the analysis without IMT did not change the monocyte estimate. Excluding subjects with cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus from analysis neither changed the monocyte estimate., Conclusions: Monocyte count is an independent predictor of future plaque formation in subjects without pre-existing carotid atherosclerosis.

Objective: Blocking of the KATP channel with either glibenclamide or 5-hydroxydecanoate (5-HD) has been shown to abolish the infarct reducing effect of ischemic preconditioning (IPC) in hearts from several species, but the results in rat and rabbit have been equivocal. In this study we investigated if 5-HD could abolish IPC in rat and rabbit and further if IPC or IPC + 5-HD were affecting action potential duration in the rabbit heart., Methods: The rat hearts were isolated and retrogradely perfused on a Langendorff perfusion apparatus with Krebs-Henseleit buffer. The rabbit experiments were performed in an in situ model. Rat and rabbit hearts were subjected to 30 min regional ischemia by ligating a coronary artery followed by 120 min (rat) or 150 min (rabbit) of reperfusion. The preconditioning protocol was one or three cycles of 5 min ischemia plus 5 min reperfusion in the rat and one cycle of 5 min ischemia plus 10 min reperfusion in the rabbit. In the rat 5-HD was added to the reservoir before ischemic preconditioning in different concentrations, and in the rabbit 5-HD was given as a bolus 5 mg/kg intraventricularly 2 min before the preconditioning ischemia. In the rabbit epicardial monophasic action potential duration at 50 % repolarization (MAPD50) was measured at 1, 2 and 5 min in each of the ischemic periods using a contact pressure electrode. Infarcts were measured with tetrazolium staining and risk zone volumes with fluorescent microspheres., Results: All data are presented as infarct size in % of risk zone volume (mean +/- SEM). In the rat 200 microM of 5-HD abolished the protective effect of one cycle of IPC (28.6 +/- 4.7 versus 8.4 +/- 0.8) and 500M of 5-HD abolished three cycles of IPC (50.7 +/- 7.8 versus 8.4 +/- 2.0). Control was 40.9 +/- 2.8. In the rabbit 5-HD abolished IPC (41.2 +/- 7.2 versus 8.1 +/- 3.2). Control was 53.5 +/- 12.4. MAPD50 were significantly more shortened compared to control at 1 and 2 min into the 30 min ischemia for the IPC and IPC+5-HD., Conclusions: We conclude that 5-HD abolishes ischemic preconditioning when given before the preconditioning ischemia in both rat and rabbit but does not abolish the ischemia induced shortening of the action potential duration in the rabbit; thus, a role for the mitochondrial KATP channel and not the sarcolemmal KATP channel in the protective mechanism behind IPC is probable.