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Background: U.S. state AIDS Drug Assistance Programs (ADAPs) are federally funded to provide antiretroviral therapy (ART) as the payer of last resort to eligible persons with HIV infection. States differ regarding their financial contributions to and ways

Effective antiretroviral therapy (ART) reduces plasma HIV RNA viral load (VL) to undetectable levels and its effectiveness depends on consistent adherence. Consistent adherence and use of safe sex practices may substantially decrease the risk of HIV transmission. We sought to explore the potential association between self-reported nonadherence to ART and engaging in unsafe sexual practices capable of transmitting HIV. Using clinical and audio computer-assisted self-interview data from the prospective HIV Outpatient Study from 2007 to 2014, we assessed the frequency of self-reported ART nonadherence during the three days prior to the survey among HIV-infected persons in care and factors associated with self-reported ART nonadherence. Of 1729 patients included in this analysis (median age = 48 years, 74.3% men who have sex with men), 17% were nonadherent, 15% had a detectable VL, and 42% reported condomless anal or vaginal sex in the past six months. In multivariable analysis, self-reported nonadherence was independently associated with younger age (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0.8 per additional ten years, [95% CI] 0.7-1.0), non-Hispanic black race/ethnicity (aOR 1.9; 95% CI 1.4-2.6 versus white), public health insurance (aOR 1.6, 95% CI 1.2-2.3 compared with private), survey date in 2011-2014 versus 2007-2010 (aOR 0.7, 95% CI 0.5-0.9), CD4 cell count ≥ 500 versus < 200 cells/mm3 (aOR 0.3, 95% CI 0.2-0.5), greater number of ART regimen doses (aOR 1.6, 95% CI 1.3-2.2), and binge drinking (aOR 1.4, 95% CI, 1.1-1.9). In this analysis, self-reported nonadherence was not associated with engaging in condomless sex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) is one of the most common sexually transmitted infections and may enhance transmission of HIV. However, population-based estimates of HSV-2 prevalence and correlates of infection are rare.Goals: To obtain population-based estimates of HSV-2 prevalence and to identify demographic and sexual behavioral correlates of infection among women in low-income communities of Northern California.Study Design: A randomized, single-stage, cluster sample, cross-sectional survey of women age 18 to 29 years who reside in 1990 US Census block groups at the lowest tenth percentile for household income.Results: The survey-weighted prevalence of HSV-2 infection was 34.8% (95% CI, 30.4-39.2). Factors independently associated with HSV-2 seropositivity were black race, older age, lower income, parity, greater number of lifetime male sexual partners, earlier onset of sexual intercourse, sex work, history of sexually transmitted disease (STD), and cocaine use.Conclusion: The high prevalence of HSV-2 and the strong correlation with sexual risk underscores the potential for further spread of STD, including HIV, in this young population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: We sought to describe rates of vaccination among HIV-infected adults in care and identify factors associated with vaccination. METHODS: Using data abstracted from medical records of participants in the HIV Outpatient Study (HOPS) during 8 influenza seasons (1999-2008) and negative binomial models with generalized estimating equation methods, we examined factors associated with increased prevalence of annual influenza vaccination. RESULTS: Among active patients, 25.8% to 43.3% were vaccinated for influenza each year (annual mean=35%, test for trend p=0.71). Vaccination rates peaked in October and November of each season and decreased sharply thereafter. In multivariable analysis, patients who were male (67.2%), non-Hispanic white (70%) or Hispanic (66%), had lower HIV viral loads (73.5%), were prescribed antiretroviral treatment (72.7%), or had a greater number of clinical encounters per year (86.7%) were more likely to receive influenza vaccination. DISCUSSION: The decreased likelihood of vaccination among women and non-Hispanic black patients suggests the need for focused efforts to reduce disparities. Increasing patient and clinician education on the importance of universal vaccination, and ensuring that vaccination activities continue in HIV clinics during the later months of the influenza season may improve influenza vaccine coverage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: HIV-1 genotypic and phenotypic susceptibility testing (GPT) optimizes antiretroviral selection, but its effect on survival is unknown.Objective: To evaluate the association between GPT and survival.Design: Cohort study.Setting: 10 U.S. HIV clinics.Patients: 2699 HIV-infected patients eligible for GPT (plasma HIV RNA level >1000 copies/mL) seen from 1999 through 2005.Measurements: Demographic characteristics, clinical factors, GPT use, all-cause mortality, and crude and adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) for the association of GPT with survival.Results: Patients were followed for a median of 3.3 years; 915 (34%) had GPT. Patients who had GPT had lower mortality rates than those who did not (2.0 vs. 2.7 deaths per 100 person-years). In standard Cox models, GPT was associated with improved survival (adjusted HR, 0.69 [95% CI, 0.51 to 0.94]; P = 0.017) after controlling for demographic characteristics, CD4+ cell count, HIV RNA level, and intensity of clinical follow-up. In subgroup analyses, GPT was associated with improved survival for the 2107 highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)-experienced patients (2.2 vs. 3.2 deaths per 100 person-years for patients who had GPT vs. those who did not have GPT; adjusted HR, 0.60 [CI, 0.43 to 0.82]; P = 0.002) and for the 921 triple antiretroviral class-experienced patients (2.1 vs. 3.1 deaths per 100 person-years; adjusted HR, 0.61 [CI 0.40 to 0.93]; P = 0.022). Marginal structural models supported associations between GPT and improved survival in the overall cohort (adjusted HR, 0.54; P = 0.001) and in the HAART-experienced group (adjusted HR, 0.56; P = 0.003).Limitations: Use of GPT was not randomized. Residual confounding may exist.Conclusion: Use of GPT was independently associated with improved survival among HAART-experienced patients.Primary Funding Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article aimed at analyzing the acute impact and the longer-term recovery of COVID-19 pandemic effects on clinical encounter types, HIV viral load (VL) testing, and suppression (HIV VL < 200 copies/mL). This study was a longitudinal cohort study of participants seen during 2019-2022 at nine HIV Outpatient Study (HOPS) sites. Generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs) estimated monthly rates of all encounters, office and telemedicine visits, and HIV VL tests using 2010-2022 data. We examined factors associated with nonsuppressed VL (VL ≥ 200 copies/mL) and not having ambulatory care visits during the pandemic using GLMM for logistic regression with 2017-2022 and 2019-2022 data, respectively. Of 2351 active participants, 76.0% were male, 57.6% aged ≥ 50 years, 40.7% non-Hispanic White, 38.2% non-Hispanic Black, 17.3% Hispanic/Latino, and 51.0% publicly insured. The monthly rates of in-person and telemedicine visits varied during 2020 through mid-year 2022. Multivariable logistic regression showed that persons with no encounters were more likely to be male or have VL ≥ 200 copies/mL. For participants with ≥1 VL test, the prevalence rate of HIV VL ≥ 200 copies/mL during 2020 was close to the rates from 2014 to 2019. The change in probability of viral suppression was not associated with participant's age, sex, race/ethnicity, or insurance type. In the HOPS, overall patient encounters declined over 2 years during the pandemic with variations in telemedicine and in-person events, with relative maintenance of viral suppression. Ongoing recovery from the impact of COVID-19 on ambulatory care will require continued efforts to improve retention and patient access to medical services., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflicting interestsThe author(s) declared the following potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Frank J Palella has been a consultant and /or on the Speakers’ Bureau for Gilead Sciences, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Merck and Co. and ViiV. The other co-authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Background: People with HIV (human immunodeficiency virus; PWH) have higher rates of cardiovascular disease than people without HIV. However, limited information exists about hypertension prevalence and associated risk factors in PWH., Methods: This cross-sectional study included adult patients in the 2022 IQVIATM Ambulatory Electronic Medical Record-US data. HIV was identified based on ≥2 HIV diagnosis codes or a positive HIV test. Hypertension was identified by diagnosis codes, ≥2 blood pressure (BP) readings ≥130/80 mm Hg, or an antihypertensive medication prescription. Among those with hypertension, control was defined as the most recent BP < 130/80 mm Hg. Logistic models using the marginal standardization method were used to estimate adjusted prevalence ratios (aPR) of hypertension and hypertension control among all patients and PWH specifically, controlling for covariates., Results: Of 7,533,379 patients, 19,102 (0.3%) had HIV. PWH had higher hypertension prevalence (66% vs. 54%, aPR:1.14, 95% CI: 1.13-1.15) compared with people without HIV. Among persons with hypertension, PWH were more likely to have controlled hypertension (aPR: 1.10, 95% CI: 1.07-1.13) compared with people without HIV. Among PWH, those from the South were more likely to have hypertension (aPR: 1.07, 95% CI: 1.02-1.12) than PWH from the Northeast, while Black PWH were less likely to have controlled hypertension (aPR: 0.72, 95% CI: 0.67-0.77) than White PWH., Conclusions: PWH were more likely to have hypertension than people without HIV. Geographic and racial disparities in hypertension prevalence and control were observed among PWH. Optimal care for PWH includes comprehensive strategies to screen for, prevent, and manage hypertension., (© Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of American Journal of Hypertension Ltd 2024.)

People with human immunodeficiency virus (PWH) are disproportionately affected by depression, but the recent national estimates for US PWH encompassing both current symptoms and clinical diagnoses to assess missed diagnoses and lack of symptom remission are lacking. We used data from CDC's Medical Monitoring Project (MMP) to report nationally representative estimates of diagnosed and undiagnosed depression among US adult PWH. During June 2021 to May 2022, MMP collected interview data on symptoms consistent with major or other depression and depression diagnoses from medical records of 3928 PWH. We report weighted percentages and prevalence ratios (PRs) to quantify differences between groups on key social and health factors. Overall, 34% of PWH experienced any depression (diagnosis or Patient Health Questionnaire-8); of these, 26% had symptoms but no diagnosis (undiagnosed depression), 19% had both diagnosis and symptoms, and 55% had a diagnosis without symptoms. Among those with depression, persons with a disability (PR: 1.52) and food insecurity (PR: 1.67) were more likely to be undiagnosed. Unemployed persons (PR: 1.62), those experiencing a disability (PR: 2.78), food insecurity (PR: 1.46), or discrimination in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) care (PR: 1.71) were more likely to have diagnosed depression with symptoms. Those with symptoms (undiagnosed or diagnosed) were less likely to be antiretroviral therapy (ART) dose adherent (PR: 0.88; PR: 0.73) or have sustained viral suppression (PR: 0.62; PR: 0.91) and were more likely to have unmet needs for mental health services (PR: 2.38, PR: 2.03). One-third of PWH experienced depression, of whom nearly half were undiagnosed or still experiencing clinically relevant symptoms. Expanding screening and effective treatment for depression could improve quality of life and HIV outcomes.

Background: Approximately 2 in 5 persons with HIV (PWH) in the United States are aged 55 years or older. HIV ancillary services, such as case management and transportation services, can help older PWH remain engaged in care. We used data from the Medical Monitoring Project (MMP) to describe the prevalence of unmet needs for ancillary services among persons with diagnosed HIV aged 55 years or older., Setting: MMP is an annual cross-sectional study that reports representative estimates on adults with diagnosed HIV in the United States., Methods: We used MMP data collected during June 2019-May 2021 to calculate weighted percentages of cisgender men and cisgender women with HIV aged 55 years or older with unmet needs for ancillary services, overall and by selected characteristics (N = 3200). Unmet need was defined as needing but not receiving a given ancillary service. We assessed differences between groups using prevalence ratios (PRs) and 95% confidence intervals with predicted marginal means., Results: Overall, 37.7% of cisgender men and women with HIV aged 55 years or older had ≥1 unmet need for ancillary services. Overall, 16.6% had ≥1 unmet need for HIV support services, 26.9% for non-HIV medical services, and 26.7% for subsistence services. There were no statistically significant differences in unmet needs for services by gender. The prevalence of ≥1 unmet need was higher among non-White persons (PR range: 1.35-1.63), persons who experienced housing instability (PR = 1.70), and those without any private insurance (PR range: 1.49-1.83)., Conclusion: A large percentage of older PWH have unmet needs for ancillary services. Given the challenges that older PWH face related to the interaction of HIV and aging-associated factors, deficits in the provision of ancillary services should be addressed., Competing Interests: The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose., (Copyright © 2024 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

People with HIV (PWH) can now enjoy longer, healthier lives due to safe and highly effective antiretroviral therapy (ART), and improved care and prevention strategies. New drug formulations such as long-acting injectables (LAI) may overcome some limitations and issues with oral antiretroviral therapy and strengthen medication adherence. However, challenges and questions remain regarding their use in aging populations. Here, we review unique considerations for LAI-ART for the treatment of HIV in older PWH, including benefits, risks, pharmacological considerations, implementation challenges, knowledge gaps, and identify factors that may facilitate uptake of LA-ART in this population., (Copyright © 2023 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Current U.S. guidelines recommend integrase strand transfer inhibitor (INSTI)-based antiretroviral therapy (ART) as initial treatment for people with HIV (PWH). We assessed long-term effects of INSTI use on lipid profiles in routine HIV care. We analyzed medical record data from the HIV Outpatient Study's participants in care from 2007 to 2021. Hyperlipidemia was defined based on clinical diagnoses, treatments, and laboratory results. We calculated hyperlipidemia incidence rates and rate ratios (RRs) during initial ART and assessed predictors of incident hyperlipidemia by using Poisson regression. Among 349 eligible ART-naïve PWH, 168 were prescribed INSTI-based ART (36 raltegravir (RAL), 51 dolutegravir (DTG), and 81 INSTI-others (elvitegravir and bictegravir)) and 181 non-INSTI-based ART, including 68 protease inhibitor (PI)-based ART. During a median follow-up of 1.4 years, hyperlipidemia rates were 12.8, 22.3, 22.7, 17.4, and 12.6 per 100 person years for RAL-, DTG-, INSTI-others-, non-INSTI-PI-, and non-INSTI-non-PI-based ART, respectively. In multivariable analysis, compared with the RAL group, hyperlipidemia rates were higher in INSTI-others (RR = 2.25; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.29-3.93) and non-INSTI-PI groups (RR = 1.89; CI: 1.12-3.19) but not statistically higher for the DTG (RR = 1.73; CI: 0.95-3.17) and non-INSTI-non-PI groups (RR = 1.55; CI: 0.92-2.62). Other factors independently associated with hyperlipidemia included older age, non-Hispanic White race/ethnicity, and ART without tenofovir disoproxil fumarate. PWH using RAL-based regimens had lower rates of incident hyperlipidemia than PWH receiving non-INSTI-PI-based ART but had similar rates as those receiving DTG-based ART, supporting federal recommendations for using DTG-based regimens as the initial therapy for ART-naïve PWH., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Jun Li et al.)

Background: Individual risk assessment allows donors to be evaluated based on their own behaviors. Study objectives were to assess human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) risk behaviors in men who have sex with men (MSM) and estimate the proportion of the study population who would not be deferred for higher risk HIV sexual behaviors., Study Design and Methods: Cross-sectional survey and biomarker assessment were conducted in eight U.S. cities. Participants were sexually active MSM interested in blood donation aged 18-39 years, assigned male sex at birth. Participants completed surveys during two study visits to define eligibility, and self-reported sexual and HIV prevention behaviors. Blood was drawn at study visit 1 and tested for HIV and the presence of tenofovir, one of the drugs in oral HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). Associations were assessed between HIV infection status or HIV PrEP use and behaviors, including sex partners, new partners, and anal sex., Results: A total of 1566 MSM completed the visit 1 questionnaire and blood draw and 1197 completed the visit 2 questionnaire. Among 1562 persons without HIV, 789 (50.4%) were not taking PrEP. Of those not taking PrEP, 66.2% reported one sexual partner or no anal sex and 69% reported no new sexual partners or no anal sex with a new partner in the past 3 months., Conclusion: The study found that questions were able to identify sexually active, HIV-negative MSM who report lower risk sexual behaviors. About a quarter of enrolled study participants would be potentially eligible blood donors using individual risk assessment questions., (© 2023 AABB.)

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Minority HIV Research Initiative (MARI) funded 8 investigators in 2016 to develop HIV prevention and treatment interventions in highly affected communities. We describe MARI studies who used community-based participatory research methods to inform the development of interventions in Black/African American and Hispanic/Latinx communities focused on sexual minority men (SMM) or heterosexual populations. Each study implemented best practice strategies for engaging with communities, informing recruitment strategies, navigating through the impacts of COVID-19, and disseminating findings. Best practice strategies common to all MARI studies included establishing community advisory boards, engaging community members in all stages of HIV research, and integrating technology to sustain interventions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Implementing community-informed approaches is crucial to intervention uptake and long-term sustainability in communities of color. MARI investigators' research studies provide a framework for developing effective programs tailored to reducing HIV-related racial/ethnic disparities., (© 2023. This is a U.S. Government work and not under copyright protection in the US; foreign copyright protection may apply.)

Background: Public health data signal increases in the number of people who inject drugs (PWID) in the United States during the past decade. An updated PWID population size estimate is critical for informing interventions and policies aiming to reduce injection-associated infections and overdose, as well as to provide a baseline for assessments of pandemic-related changes in injection drug use., Methods: We used a modified multiplier approach to estimate the number of adults who injected drugs in the United States in 2018. We deduced the estimated number of nonfatal overdose events among PWID from 2 of our previously published estimates: the number of injection-involved overdose deaths and the meta-analyzed ratio of nonfatal to fatal overdose. The number of nonfatal overdose events was divided by prevalence of nonfatal overdose among current PWID for a population size estimate., Results: There were an estimated 3 694 500 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1 872 700-7 273 300) PWID in the United States in 2018, representing 1.46% (95% CI, .74-2.87) of the adult population. The estimated prevalence of injection drug use was highest among males (2.1%; 95% CI, 1.1-4.2), non-Hispanic Whites (1.8%; 95% CI, .9-3.6), and adults aged 18-39 years (1.8%; 95% CI, .9-3.6)., Conclusions: Using transparent, replicable methods and largely publicly available data, we provide the first update to the number of people who inject drugs in the United States in nearly 10 years. Findings suggest the population size of PWID has substantially grown in the past decade and that prevention services for PWID should be proportionally increased., Competing Interests: Potential conflicts of interest. K. B. reports salary as an employee at the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. E. H. reports consulting fees from Merck & Co. for work unrelated to this paper. All other authors report no potential conflicts., (© The Author(s) 2022. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Persons who inject drugs (PWID) and exchange sex face disproportionate HIV rates. We assessed prevalence of exchange sex (receiving money/drugs for sex from ≥ 1 male partner(s) during the past year) among cisgender PWID, separately for women and men with a history of sex with men (MSM). We examined factors associated with exchange sex, including sociodemographic characteristics, sexual and drug use behaviors, and healthcare access/utilization. Over one-third of the 4657 participants reported exchange sex (women: 36.2%; MSM: 34.8%). Women who exchanged sex (WES) were significantly more likely to test HIV-positive than other women. Men who exchanged sex with men (MESM) showed a similar trend. WES and MESM shared many characteristics, including being uninsured, experiencing recent homelessness, condomless sex, polydrug use, and receptive/distributive needle sharing. These findings highlight a need to strengthen prevention interventions and address structural determinants of HIV for WES and MESM, particularly PWID who exchange sex., (© 2022. This is a U.S. Government work and not under copyright protection in the US; foreign copyright protection may apply.)

Background: The timing and magnitude of antiretroviral therapy-associated weight change attributions are unclear., Setting: HIV Outpatient Study participants., Methods: We analyzed 2007-2018 records of virally suppressed (VS) persons without integrase inhibitor (INSTI) experience who switched to either INSTI-based or another non-INSTI-based ART, and remained VS. We analyzed BMI changes using linear mixed models, INSTI- and tenofovir alafenamide (TAF) contributions to BMI change by linear mixed models-estimated slopes, and BMI inflection points., Results: Among 736 participants (5316 person-years), 441 (60%) switched to INSTI-based ART; the remainder to non-INSTI-based ART. The mean follow-up was 7.15 years for INSTI recipients and 7.35 years for non-INSTI. Preswitch, INSTI and non-INSTI groups had similar median BMI (26.3 versus 25.9 kg/m 2 , P = 0.41). INSTI regimens included raltegravir (178), elvitegravir (112), and dolutegravir (143). Monthly BMI increases postswitch were greater with INSTI than non-INSTI (0.0525 versus 0.006, P < 0.001). A BMI inflection point occurred 8 months after switch among INSTI users; slopes were similar regardless of TAF use immediately postswitch. Among INSTI + TAF users, during 8 months postswitch, 87% of BMI slope change was associated with INSTI use, 13% with TAF use; after 8 months, estimated contributions were 27% and 73%, respectively. For non-INSTI+TAF, 84% of BMI gain was TAF-associated consistently postswitch. Persons switching from TDF to TAF had greater BMI increases than others ( P < 0.001)., Conclusion: Among VS persons who switched ART, INSTI and TAF use were independently associated with BMI increases. During 8 months postswitch, BMI changes were greatest and most associated with INSTI use; afterward, gradual BMI gain was largely TAF-associated., Competing Interests: F.P. has been a consultant and/or on the Speakers' Bureau for Gilead Sciences, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Merck and Co., and ViiV. The remaining authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose., (Copyright © 2022 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: People who inject drugs (PWID) have likely borne disproportionate health consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic. PWID experienced both interruptions and changes to drug supply and delivery modes of harm reduction, treatment, and other medical services, leading to potentially increased risks for HIV, hepatitis C virus (HCV), and overdose. Given surveillance and research disruptions, proximal, indirect indicators of infectious diseases and overdose should be developed for timely measurement of health effects of the pandemic on PWID., Methods: We used group concept mapping and a systems thinking approach to produce an expert stakeholder-generated, multi-level framework for monitoring changes in PWID health outcomes potentially attributable to COVID-19 in the U.S. This socio-ecological measurement framework elucidates proximal and distal contributors to infectious disease and overdose outcomes, many of which can be measured using existing data sources., Results: The framework includes multi-level components including policy considerations, drug supply/distribution systems, the service delivery landscape, network factors, and individual characteristics such as mental and general health status and service utilization. These components are generally mediated by substance use and sexual behavioral factors to cause changes in incidence of HIV, HCV, sexually transmitted infections, wound/skin infections, and overdose., Conclusion: This measurement framework is intended to increase the quality and timeliness of research on the impacts of COVID-19 in the context of the current pandemic and future crises. Next steps include a ranking process to narrow the drivers of change in health risks to a concise set of indicators that adequately represent framework components, can be written as measurable indicators, and are quantifiable using existing data sources, as well as a publicly available web-based platform for summary data contributions., Competing Interests: Declarations of Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is highly effective in preventing new HIV infection, but uptake remains challenging among Black and Hispanic/Latino persons. The purpose of this review was to understand how studies have used electronic telecommunication technology to increase awareness, uptake, adherence, and persistence in PrEP care among Black and Hispanic/Latino persons and how it can reduce social and structural barriers that contribute to disparities in HIV infection. Of the 1114 articles identified, 10 studies were eligible. Forty percent (40%) of studies focused on Black or Hispanic/Latino persons and 80% addressed social and structural barriers related to PrEP use such as navigation or access to PrEP. Mobile health designs were more commonly used (50%) compared to telehealth (30%) and e-health (20%) designs. There is a need to increase the development of telecommunications interventions that address the needs of Black and Hispanic/Latino persons often challenged with uptake and adherent use of PrEP., (© 2022. This is a U.S. government work and not under copyright protection in the U.S.; foreign copyright protection may apply.)

Objective: Describe engagement in HIV care over time after initial engagement in HIV care, by gender identity., Design: Observational, clinical cohort study of people with HIV engaged in routine HIV care across the United States., Methods: We followed people with HIV who linked to and engaged in clinical care (attending ≥2 visits in 12 months) in cohorts in the North American Transgender Cohort Collaboration, 2000-2018. Within strata of gender identity, we estimated the 7-year (84-month) restricted mean time spent: lost-to-clinic (stratified by pre/postantiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation); in care prior to ART initiation; on ART but not virally suppressed; virally suppressed (≤200 copies/ml); or dead (pre/post-ART initiation)., Results: Transgender women ( N  = 482/101 841) spent an average of 35.5 out of 84 months virally suppressed (this was 30.5 months for cisgender women and 34.4 months for cisgender men). After adjustment for age, race, ethnicity, history of injection drug use, cohort, and calendar year, transgender women were significantly less likely to die than cisgender people. Cisgender women spent more time in care not yet on ART, and less time on ART and virally suppressed, but were less likely to die compared with cisgender men. Other differences were not clinically meaningful., Conclusions: In this sample, transgender women and cisgender people spent similar amounts of time in care and virally suppressed. Additional efforts to improve retention in care and viral suppression are needed for all people with HIV, regardless of gender identity., (Copyright © 2022 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)