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In this article we review the past 50 years of climatic conditions off West Greenland, where there has been large variability in the atmospheric and oceanographic conditions as well as in fish stocks. A positive relationship is found between the hydrographic conditions expressed by the water temperature and the fish recruitment of cod and redfish, whereas the recruitment of shrimp and halibut seems to react positively to lower temperatures. Observed shifts in the hydrographic conditions during the second half of the 1990s indicate that a change in the fish stock environment may be expected in the coming years. Relationships between the past variations in fisheries resources, hydrographic conditions, and the large-scale climatic conditions expressed by the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) strongly support the incorporation of environmental variability in prediction models for fish stock recruitment and thereby in the assessment of fisheries resources. Article from Marine Science Symposia Vol. 219 - "Hydrobiological variability in the ICES Area, 1990-1999", symposium held in Edinburgh, 8-10 August 2001. To access the remaining articles please click on the keyword "MSS Vol. 219".

The super-storm surge (water levels above 3m) that hit the Danish and German coastlines in the western Baltic Sea on November 13, 1872, is the worst natural disaster in modern Danish history. The meteorological and oceanographic causes for this extreme event have been analysed using the relatively few observations from November 1872 combined with re-analysis outputs from modern operational forecasting models. Key findings for the days November 11-14, 1872, are: • The Baltic Sea was exposed to north-easterly storm to hurricane force winds • The extreme water levels were solely wind generated. • Theories of backwash of water from eastern Baltic or higher than normal water level in the Baltic Sea is refuted. The extraordinary water levels on 13 November 1872 can most likely be attributed to the length of the storm/hurricane. • The western Baltic Sea, in particular the Arkona Basin area, was exposed to 8-10 m waves. The combination of a super-storm surge and extreme waves caused severe damage along the Danish Baltic Sea coastlines. Around 90 people drowned in the Danish coastal areas, especially in the flat southern parts of the two islands of Lolland and Falster. Houses and local infrastructure were destroyed leaving thousands homeless the following winter. Additionally, an unknown number of sailors drowned when several hundred sailing ships shipwrecked during the storm. A nationwide collection of money to help the many victims was initiated and successfully implemented. Super-storm surges will inevitably hit the Baltic Sea again. A detailed high-water statistics, including historical surge registrations, reveal a return period of around 300 years for a 1872 size super-storm surge. In preparing for the next super-storm surge, it is, however, important to consider the sea level rise due to climate change. According to national authorities, the sea level in the Danish waters will rise around 0.5 m before 2100., Die Supersturmflut mit Wasserständen von über 3 m über Mittelwasserstand, die am 13. November 1872 die dänischen und deutschen Küsten in der westlichen Ostsee traf, ist die verhängnisvollste Naturkatastrophe in der modernen dänischen Geschichte. Die meteorologischen und ozeanographischen Ursachen für dieses Extremereignis wurden anhand der relativ wenigen Beobachtungen vom November 1872 in Kombination mit Re-Analysen moderner operationeller Vorhersagemodelle analysiert. Die wichtigsten Ergebnisse für die Tage vom 11. bis 14. November 1872 sind: • Die Ostsee war nordöstlichen Stürmen mit Orkanstärke ausgesetzt. • Die extremen Wasserstände wurden ausschließlich durch Wind verursacht. • Theorien über einen Rückschwapp-Effekt von angestauten bzw. hohen Wasserständen aus der östlichen Ostsee sind widerlegt. • Die außergewöhnlichen Wasserstände am 13. November 1872 sind höchstwahrscheinlich auf die Dauer des Sturms zurückzuführen. • Die westliche Ostsee, insbesondere das Gebiet des Arkonabeckens, war 8-10 m hohen Windwellen ausgesetzt. Die Kombination aus einer Supersturmflut und extremen Windwellen verursachte schwere Schäden an den dänischen Ostseeküsten. Rund 90 Menschen ertranken in den dänischen Küstengebieten, insbesondere in den flachen südlichen Teilen der beiden Inseln Lolland und Falster. Häuser und die örtliche Infrastruktur wurden zerstört, so dass Tausende im folgenden Winter obdachlos wurden. Außerdem ertrank eine unbekannte Zahl von Seeleuten, als mehrere hundert Segelschiffe während des Sturms Schiffbruch erlitten. Ein landesweiter Spendenaufruf zur Unterstützung der vielen Opfer wurde danach initiiert und sehr erfolgreich durchgeführt. Extreme Sturmfluten werden die Ostsee unweigerlich wieder heimsuchen. Eine detaillierte Hochwasserstatistik, einschließlich historischer Sturmflutregistrierungen, zeigt eine Wiederkehrperiode von etwa 300 Jahren für eine Sturmflut der Größenordnung von 1872. Bei der Vorbereitung auf die nächste extreme Sturmflut muss jedoch auch der Anstieg des Meeresspiegels infolge des Klimawandels berücksichtigt werden. Nach Angaben der nationalen Behörden wird der Meeresspiegel in den dänischen Gewässern bis zum Jahr 2100 um etwa 0,5 m ansteigen., Baltic Sea, Super-storm surge, L.A. Colding, hurricane, ocean models, waves, destruc-tion, economic help, return period, sea level rise, Supersturmflut, Ostsee, L.A. Colding, Hurrikan, Ozeanmodelle, Wellen, Zerstörung, wirtschaftliche Hilfe, Wiederkehrperiode, Meeresspiegelanstieg

The Denmark Strait overflow water derives from several distinct sources. Arctic Intermediate Water from the Iceland Sea, Atlantic Water of the West Spitsbergen Current recirculating in the Fram Strait, and Arctic Atlantic Water returning from the different circulation loops in the Arctic Ocean all take part in the overflow. Denser water masses, such as the upper Polar Deep Water and the Canadian Basin Deep Water from the Arctic Ocean and Arctic Intermediate Water from the Greenland Sea, are occasionally present at the sill and could contribute the deepest part of the overflow plume. A comparison between hydrographic observations made during the Greenland Sea Project in the late 1980s and early 1990s and during the European Sub Polar Ocean Programme (ESOP) and Variability of Exchanges in the Northern Seas (VEINS) programmes in the late 1990s shows that the Greenland Sea Arctic Intermediate Water has largely replaced the Arctic Ocean deep waters. In the less dense fraction of the overflow the Recirculating Atlantic Water and Arctic Atlantic Water carried by the East Greenland Current have become more prominent than the Iceland Sea Arctic Intermediate Water. If the Denmark Strait overflow were to switch between different sources, it would lead to changes in the characteristics of the overflow water that add to the variations caused by the variability of the source waters. Article from Marine Science Symposia Vol. 219 - "Hydrobiological variability in the ICES Area, 1990-1999", symposium held in Edinburgh, 8-10 August 2001. To access the remaining articles please click on the keyword "MSS Vol. 219".

The INTAROS Roadmap describes the way forward to improve and sustain the observing capacity in the Arctic. The Roadmap addresses the full data delivery chain from observing sensors to data repositories with focus on in situ observations. The document describes key factors determining how well an observing system can function in the Arctic, involving technological advances, infrastructure and data networks. Furthermore, the document emphasize the importance of cross disciplinary collaboration and stakeholder engagement as part of the data delivery chain. The development of in situ observing systems in the Arctic, especially ocean-based observations in the ice-covered regions, depends heavily on mature technology, transport infrastructures and logistical services allowing personnel to access the areas. Deployment and operation of observing platforms require use of icebreakers, aircraft, manned ice stations and automated systems that can operate year-round Based on the experience and knowledge of the INTAROS consortium, the following recommendations are formulated: The importance of in situ observations must be promoted as the backbone for building knowledge about climate and environmental change in the Arctic, at the same level as satellite observations and modelling systems The funding mechanisms for in situ observing systems need to be strengthened and coordinated between programmes, projects and institutions involved in Arctic observation, including local communities The Joint Statement of Ministers (ASM 2021), signed by 25 countries and six Indigenous Peoples organizations, states that they agree to strengthen cooperation on implementing Arctic observing and data sharing, implying that they need to allocate resources for in situ measurements contributing to the observing systems. Technology development for more robust and reliable in situ observing systems is needed. Here, major industry actors can play a role by investing in platforms and sensors that can operate autonomously in the Arctic The data delivery chain from in situ observing systems must be operationalised for each of the discipline-oriented systems in order to facilitate data sharing. This requires collaboration between the research communities, data services and other actors involved in the delivery chain. Collaboration can be enhanced by setting up mediators who can communicate between the actors Observing systems must be adapted to evolving priorities, requirements, and technological developments. This requires regular dialogue with researchers, stakeholders in private and public sector, researchers, service providers, local communities and Indigenous rightholders in the Arctic. Competence building need to be strengthened in observing methods, technologies, and procedures across gender and generations. The INTAROS roadmap builds on the experience and knowledge from the INTAROS consortium comprising more than 300 scientists from 49 institutions in Europe, Asia, and North America. In addition the document builds on discussions with representatives of Indigenous and local communities, private and public stakeholders, scientists and service providers at more than 50 workshops organised by the INTAROS project.

The overall results of INTAROS are summarized for each WP as follows: WP1 The requirements for integrated Arctic Observing Systems” Existing requirement documents have been reviewed and consolidated. Links have been established with various stakeholders, rightholders and user groups including international bodies, public administration, private sector, Indigenous and local communities, and science communities. Collaboration has been developed with several other projects, programmes and institutions working with Arctic observing systems in Europe, North America and Asia. A data management plan and data governance framework for Arctic data has been developed and a Roadmap for future sustainable Arctic Observing System has been prepared. WP2 Exploitation of existing observing systems. The term “observing system” was defined as an observing asset consisting of a data collection component (physical infrastructure) and a data management component (e-infrastructure). An observing system can be multidisciplinary or focused on a specific discipline, and it serves a clearly identified scientific or operational purpose. A survey was conducted among the partners providing information about 50 in situ observing systems ranging from large pan-Arctic programs such as International Arctic Buoy Programme to local observations at a single station. A part of the survey was to assess characteristics of the systems (e.g. documentation, data management, uncertainty handling, sustainability) using a maturity score from 1 to 6. Systems with highest maturity were those with sustainable funding for the whole data production and data management chain. The online survey system was further developed in a spin-off project, resulting in the ARCMAP system, which will be operated as a service after INTAROS. Many of the assessed observing systems, including satellite data products, were used to build the INTAROS data catalogue (WP5) and in case studies demonstrating integrated use of observing systems and modelling systems (WP6). WP3: Enhancement of multidisciplinary in situ observing systems. The work has focused on developing and implementing new solutions and novel technologies to fill selected gaps identified in the existing Arctic observing systems. Novel instruments and sampling methods were integrated with mature components of existing observatories to increase temporal and geographic coverage of in situ observational data in the Arctic and to include missing key parameters. New clusters of sensors have been integrated into a variety of platforms, and several experimental setups have been tested and implemented. The field work was conducted in different marine and terrestrial regions to collect important data to understand ongoing climate and environmental changes and their consequences for the Arctic. The field implementation of new ocean and sea ice observations was supported by use of icebreakers, research vessels, ships of opportunity, ocean column and seafloor observatories provided by collaborating national projects. The data collection from ice sheets, glaciers and terrestrial stations was based on existing reference sites and other research sites in the Pan-Arctic region. New collected measurements have been processed and formatted to provide standardized data sets ready for integration into existing data repositories and registered in the INTAROS data catalogue. Metadata and data formats for observations made with multidisciplinary platforms have been developed in collaboration with WP1, WP2, and WP5. Selected data sets have been exploited in demonstration actions (WP6) and in consultations with stakeholders in (WP7). WP4: Community-based monitoring (CBM) programs have been strengthened. The project co-organized 40 workshops which brought practitioners of CBM together and enabled them to share and discuss their experiences. Six hundred people attended the workshops inc. representatives from 5 Arctic Indigenous Peoples. Existing Arctic CBM programs have been analysed and capabilities, “good” practice and challenges have been identified. A website has been set up with tools to cross-fertilize local knowledge with scientific knowledge. New and expanded existing CBM programs have been initiated in Svalbard, Greenland, Yakutia and Kola Peninsula, to inform decision-making and action. Datasets derived from the programs have been registered in the INTAROS data catalogue. Lessons from CBM were made broadly available through a large number of physical and online events, policy briefs, proceedings, scientific reports and articles. WP5. Data integration and management. Work has focused on deploying and demonstrating a cloud platform with geo-statistical tools for services as part of the integrated Arctic Observation System (iAOS). The objectives were to demonstrate integration of data and provide tools for data analysis, transformation, and visualization, in the cloud platform. Selected applications in WP6 have been used as showcases for the services and tools provided by this cloud platform. In addition, work has concentrated on improving data integration from existing repositories, along with metadata, so that it is findable and exploitable by iAOS applications. Extensive efforts have been devoted to streamline the data flow between data producers, data managers and data users. A major outcome of the project is the iAOS Portal and the INTAROS Data Catalogue, providing access to multidisciplinary data from a wide range of data repositories containing Arctic data. The portal and catalogue will be maintained and used for promotion of data and services in other projects after INTAROS. WP6. Applications towards stakeholders. Work has focused on studies of how data from various observing systems can be used to develop useful results to the benefit for different stakeholders on local, regional or pan-Arctic scale. The results demonstrate how the Arctic observing system can be applied to further develop the accuracy of climate models, improve the understanding of biogeochemical cycles and ecosystem functioning, enhance fisheries and environmental management, increase the level of preparedness towards natural hazards, and develop better management and decision-making for selected local communities. The following topics are addressed: (1) Improving skill of climate models in the Arctic, with examples from sea ice prediction and hydrological forecasting; (2) Applying observations and models for environmental and fisheries management, with case studies in the Barents Sea and west Greenland; (3) Ice-ocean statistics using examples from Observing System Simulation Experiments (OSSE), preparation of a 10 year reanalysis, development of a risk assessment system, studies of ocean sound, oceanographic and sea ice time series, sea level studies from altimeter and tide gauge data, sea ice data from ice mass balance buoys, sea ice remote sensing applications; (4) natural hazards, (5) greenhouse gas studies, (6) enhancing community-based observing systems in Greenland and Svalbard, and (7) summary of ocean observing benefit for blue growth in the Arctic. WP7. Communication and outreach. Work has been focused on planning and conducting various communication activities to inform projects, programmes, user, rightsholder and stakeholder groups, agencies, and policy makers about INTAROS. The consortium members have promoted the project and its objectives through several hundred meetings, workshops, conferences, publications, and other dissemination activities. Much of this communication and dissemination work has been done in collaboration with WP1 and WP4. Various online tools were employed to maximize the visibility and communicate the project activities including: a public project website, Twitter and other social media, videos on YouTube, blogs, printed materials (brochures, factsheets, posters, policy briefs, photos), project identity toolkit (graphical image, logos, lettering, templates, and branded materials). Furthermore, several training and education activities have been organized, focused at early career scientists and students, public resource managers, and Indigenous community members. Project websites: http://intaros.eu, http://intaros.nersc.no

This report gives an overview of the activities, results and impacts of INTAROS Work Package 6 (WP6). The aim of WP6 is to demonstrate how an integrated observation system can be of specific benefit for society at local, regional or pan-Arctic scale. Through WP6 we show the capability of an enhanced Arctic Observation System towards advancing the economic role of the Arctic by providing support for better-documented processes and better-informed decisions within key sectors such as shipping, petroleum, fishing, and tourism. Further, WP6 demonstrates how the Arctic Observation system may be applied to further develop the accuracy of climate models, improve the understanding of biogeochemical cycles and ecosystem functioning, enhance fisheries and environmental management, increase the level of preparedness towards natural hazards, and develop better management and decision making concepts for selected local communities. Through WP6 INTAROS demonstrates enhanced data search and retrieval, assimilation into models, validation of estimated and projected climate parameters, scientific analysis, decision-support and policy-making. Following a general introduction to INTAROS WP6, eight chapters summarize, for each topic covered, the main activities and results, data and models used, stakeholder/user benefits, and further development and exploitation of results. The topics span broadly and target very different end-user groups but they all share the same overall challenge: how to synthesize data across time and space from different sources, formats and scientific disciplines into aggregated synoptic data products that are relevant for end-users. The following topics are addressed: Improving skill of model predictions in the Arctic, Applying observations and models for environmental and fisheries management, Ice-ocean statistics, Remote sensing applications, Natural hazards in the Arctic, Greenhouse gas exchange in the Arctic, Case studies of community-based observing systems and Benefits of ocean observing for blue growth in the Arctic. The report then describes concrete showcases, software applications. Selected main results across WP6 are then presented, before the report ends with conclusions and perspectives.

Climate warming in the Arctic Region opens up for new or changes and expansion of existing maritime business activities. The future business development perspectives for three important components of the Arctic Blue Economy –maritime transport via the Arctic Ocean, cruise industry in the Svalbard area and fishery in the Barents Sea has been analyzed. The maritime transport and cruise industry will potentially increase substantially over the coming years due to retreat of Arctic sea ice.In 2020 and 2021 the Covid-19 pandemic had severe negative impact on the cruise industry, whereas in 2022 the cruise traffic in the Arctic has recovered and was at the same level as the peak year in 2019. Barents Sea fishery is among the most important in Europe and represent a significant economic value for the industry. However, climate change with associated ecosystem changes will have impact on the stock composition and distribution, and consequently on the commercial fisheries. Entering into operations in the harsh Arctic environment requires good knowledge and understanding of the physical environmental conditions to ensure a sound decision process on economy, efficiency, safety of ship, crew and cargo and protection of the vulnerable Arctic environment. Therefore, examples of basic statistical analysis of relevant parameters like sea ice, wind, waves, temperature and salinity has been performed to outline the trends in change of environmental condition of importance for maritime operations in the Arctic. Additionally, operational meteorological and oceanographic near real time products and services are important when actually operating in the area. Satellite observations and outputs from numerical models are essential data sources for generation of operational products and services; but the trustworthiness of the information’s from these two data sources depends critically on the availability of in situ observations of key variables for assimilation in the models and especially for validation of quality of the generated data products. Unfortunately, the availability of enough relevant and high-quality in situ observations of oceanographic and meteorological variables from the Arctic Region is far from satisfactory for this purpose. It is therefore crucial to design and implement a fit-for-purpose Arctic Observing System to ensure the availability of high-quality in situ data needed for assimilation into forecasting models. The in situ data are also needed for validation of modelling and remote sensing products used both for operational monitoring and in statistical trend analysis. In the perspective of increased maritime activity in the environmentally vulnerable Arctic Region it would be advisable to perform monitoring and analysis of environmental pressures similar to the one performed by European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA) and European Environmental Agency (EEA) for the European Seas (EMSA & EEA,2021).

The potential for growth of the Arctic Blue Economy is increasing due to climate change, fast technological development and strong demands from the global economy. Such development will however put severe stress on the vulnerable Arctic environment and there is a growing consciousness among nations surrounding the Arctic to ensure a responsible and sustainable development of Arctic Blue economy, which calls for a science-based management approach. Mandatory for such an approach is good knowledge and understanding of the Arctic Ocean environment and ecosystem,which demands a well-coordinated, integrated, sustained fit-for-purpose Arctic Ocean Observation System. The design of a proper Arctic Ocean Observation System is recommended to follow the concept outlined in the “Framework for Ocean Observations” (UNESCO, 2012). This will require a strong international coordination and governance structure responsible for dialog with users and stakeholders, sustained funding, maintenance of observation requirements (spatiotemporal resolution, quality, timeliness), technology development, free and open access to data. An important component of the design process is an assessment of the costs and value of the observing system i.e., justify that the benefit exceeds the costs. Costs are easier (although not unproblematic) to quantify than the benefits. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) has in recent years, in cooperation with various ocean observing communities, started to establish ways to quantify the value of ocean observations and proposes some pragmatic approaches. It is therefore recommended that the management of the future Arctic Ocean Observation System works closely with experts from OECD on the establishment of a robust cost-benefit analysis methodology for the Arctic Ocean.

This document presents a basis for alignment of polar data policies, notably the policies and statements of the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR), the International Arctic Science Committee (IASC), the Sustaining Arctic Observing Networks (SAON) initiative, the Arctic Spatial Data Infrastructure, and the Southern Ocean Observing System (SOOS). The document examines the state and recent developments of global and important regional data policies, as well as technological and institutional developments that should or might be considered when forming new polar data policies. Based on this examination, we conclude by identifying a number of data management principles that can be regarded as essential to the management of polar research data and can be incorporated in all polar data policies in such a way that they are aligned with each other and with overarching global and regional data policies.

The aim of the INTAROS Revised Requirement Report has been to: Capitalise on INTAROS achievements Take note of recently articulated user need from the EU and international organisations Define more concrete requirements for the identified essential variables Address gaps in the present observing system Requirements for in situ observations address resolution in space and time, quality and timeliness. Users of data generally have clearly articulated needs for time resolution, quality and timeliness, while defining the spatial resolution gives rise to serious considerations because: There is a need to find a balance between what ideally would be “nice to have” and what is feasible to achieve from a technical, logistic and especially economic point of view There is still a debate among scientists on how to address the spatial resolution: A gridded format with fixed horizontal and vertical distances between observation points Identifying key location with great impact and representativeness Requirements for atmospheric, ocean and land essential variables has been identified and discussed using the WMO OSCAR and Copernicus Systems – both using a gridded approach – as a baseline for a critical review. The performed gap analysis points to severe lack of observations in general and in the central Arctic in particular, and lack of sustainability since a majority of observations are based on time-limited campaigns. Additionally, there is a need for investments in developments of observation technology, incl. data communication and data management The performed requirement and gap analysis results in the following recommendations: Ensure work towards a robustly substantiated definition of spatial resolution in an Arctic observing system involving analytic tools such as numerical models (OSE’s and OSSE’s), cost and feasibility studies Establish an international coordination and governance structure involving nations, SAON, WMO, IOC, EU Copernicus,, and representatives of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communitiesto: Ensure a forum for dialogue between users of Arctic information, observation program leaders and sensor and application developers to understand evolving needs and capacities Secure long-term coordination and continuation of measurements Ensure sustained funding to a fit-for-purpose Arctic Observing System Enhance and optimize multidisciplinary observations Ensure open and free real time data exchange following the FAIR principle Increase involvement of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities in data collection and data integration Promote training and teaching as a key value and fundament for capacity building Initiate data rescue activities to ingest existing data presently not freely available incl.Russian data Pursue innovative cost-effective technological solutions for Arctic observations securing continuous Near Real Time data flow from this harsh environment also during wintertime INTAROS experiences suggest that cross-weaving scientist- and community-based monitoring programs can lead to improved information products and enhanced efficiency and sustainability of observing programs. Moreover, it can promote stronger linkages between environmental monitoring programs and government decision-making processes.

In the light of the COVID-19 restrictions on working and meeting conditions the INTAROS Stakeholder Task Team decided to concentrate stakeholder activities during the last two years of the project on: • Dialog meetings with relevant European Research Infrastructures • A survey among sensor and instrument manufacturers. • Meeting with representatives of national managing authorities. • Attending relevant virtual conferences, webinars and networking events wherever possible. Successful dialog meetings were performed with 12 European Research Infrastructures revealing a good insight in their Arctic engagement, strategies and priorities for in situ observation, data management, focus on best practices, technology development, cooperation and coordination among themselves, funding situation and willingness to engage in future Arctic Observing System. More than 100 sensor and instrument manufacturers were invited to respond to a web-based technology survey – disappointingly only 16 companies responded. The survey showed that there is a group of sensor and instrument manufacturers that have experience, capability and interest in participating in innovation of new technology in the harsh Arctic environment. The marine and maritime management authorities expressed great interest in gaining environmental data from the Arctic region. Especially time series and trends are of importance, but also data in support of reliable ecosystem modelling was highlighted. The INTAROS achievements have been broadly promoted by the consortium members at conferences, workshops, webinars etc. primarily via virtual technology whereby the personal contact and networking has been lost. Some relevant events have been postponed or cancelled, so the outreach activity has not been so high as in the early part of the project.

An overview of information, products and services requested by users representing primarily the private commercial sector has been collected via INTAROS user survey supplemented with results from similar surveys performed by other projects and organisations together with information obtained by INTAROS consortium members in dialog with relevant user at meetings, workshops and conferences. Most important products: • Pre-operational phase o Model projections on the long-term (years) development o Risk assessment associated with safe navigation, deployment and recovery of gear, seabed mining, hydrocarbon extraction etc o Statistics and analysis based on existing data • Operational Phase o Operational Services – real-time observations and/or short-term forecasts (5-10 days) o Ship routing o Risk assessment Information on sea Ice (concentration, ice edge, drift thickness) and iceberg are central in the required product portfolio; but the surveys additionally revealed requests for meteorological parameters (pressure, wind, temperature, visibility, precipitation, humidity, icing) and oceanographic parameters (temperature, currents and waves, salinity, oxygen and chlorophyll). The users have very strong demands to resolution in space and time, quality and timeliness of the products they receive: • a horizontal resolution of down to 100 m especially for special ice products was articulated. • Updating frequency for the information are generally requested to be less than one day preferably down to a few hours. • Quality shall regularly be documented and the inclusion of uncertainty information as an integral part of the product is desirable • For operational services it is important that every product update is available in near real-time. For other types of products up to a few days are regarded as timely delivery. • For model forecast the most important forecasting period is the next 2-3 days for operational purposes, while longer forecasting periods 7-10 days are valuable for more long-term planning purposes. Due to the limited communication facilities in the Arctic region the delivery of the requested products represents a special challenge. This overview is a valuable tool for service providers to plan the production line. The required resolution in time and space indicates that satellite observations and model simulations will be key components in the product generation. In situ observations are however indispensable for such a production line to secure the quality of products generated based on satellite observations and numerical models, but do also serve as a valuable source of information for product generation in itself. The design and establishment of a fit-for-purpose sustained Arctic Observation System is therefore of utmost importance.

This report presents a synthesis of the substantial assessment of Arctic observations within INTAROS.Since the assessed systems mainly belong to the European partners in the project, the assessment is unavoidably biased towards the European sector of the Arctic. The detailed results of the assessment can be found in previous deliverables (D2.1, D2.2, D2.4, D2.5, D2.7, D2.8 and D2.12). Also some higher-level recommendations for future improvements of Arctic observing are taken into account. The assessment addresses a substantial subset of Arctic observing systems, data collections and satellite products across scientific disciplines, also including some data repositories and a brief scientific gap analysis. In the assessment we analyzed sustainability, including funding, technical maturity and data handling for the entire chain from observation to users, including metadata procedures and availability of data. The gap analysis includes both technical characteristics, such as spatial and temporal coverage and resolution or accuracy, and a smaller set of scientific gap analyses where models and observations were used synergistically. Each characteristic of the observing systems were ranked from maturity 1 (lowest score) to maturity 6 (highest score) based on the results of the survey. In the synthesis wefirst ranked the systems according to general sustainability and then other characteristics were used. The range in maturity of sustainability varied from 1 to 6, and so did the other characteristics. A noteworthy result was that systems with high sustainability scores tended to score high also on other characteristics, such as data handling and technical maturity. Moreover, many systems with high maturity in sustainability, as well as in data handling and data availability, are supported by national or international monitoring or infrastructure programs. It is also noteworthy that several of these are mostly present at mid-latitudes, but poorly represented in the Arctic. For observations over Arctic land, the quality of some existing systems would benefit from being enhanced by new instruments or improved methods. As example, adequate observing of snow properties is problematic due to the high spatial variability of snow cover. While this also applies to hydrological observations, the situation improves as a result of large overarching international programmes. Observations of aerosols and some trace gases are also lacking in some specific regions. For the Arctic Ocean there is a lack of in-situ observing systems across all disciplines, which is connected to limited infrastructure provided by ships,icebreakers, and various types of autonomous observing platforms operating on sea ice with capacity to transfer data in near real-time.Subsurface observing systems such as bottom-anchored moorings and sea floor installations are robust and can operate autonomously over several year, but the data can only be delivered in delayed mode.In the atmosphere, icebreaker-based summer science expeditions provide the only reliable information on atmospheric vertical structure. While scientific expeditions likely provide the highest quality observations available for the Arctic Ocean region, the scores for almost all other aspects, sustainability as well as for data handling, in general and especially for atmospheric observations are among the lowest for vessel-based observations. Satellite observations provide the only possibility to obtain data with sufficient spatial and temporal coverage as well as resolution. Satellite data products have generally high score on data handling aspects, but for some data products the score on quality and uncertainty estimation is low. While retrieved temperature, and to a lesser extent, humidity at levels in the atmosphere is generally adequate for monitoring, satellite profiling of the atmosphere suffers from significant and seasonally varying biases and errors. Passive satellite sensing of clouds is also problematic; while some bulk products, such as cloud fraction, are useful during the sunlit season, more precise information, such as liquid water path, has high uncertainty as indicated by comparing different retrievals from the same set of sensors. In the dark season, when visible radiation channels vanish, most satellite cloud products are very unreliable. Regarding sea ice observations, there is significant uncertainty in the estimation of thickness and snow layer. There is also uncertainty in ice concentration in the summer season with melt-ponds on top of the ice. Traditionally, observation network assessments build on the network concept with a “comprehensive” level including all observations, a “baseline” level of an agreed subset of sustained observations, and a “reference” level, with observations adhering to specific calibrations and traceability criteria. An atmospheric example is the “comprehensive” global GCOS radiosounding network, and the “baseline” GUAN (GCOS Upper Air Network) and “reference” GRUAN (GCOS Reference Upper Air Network) networks. With the lack of in-situ observations and the logistical difficulties to deploy new stations, this concept does not work well in the marine part of the Arctic. In summary, we recommend to •Advance Arctic observing systems under national, international or regional programs that provide more sustainable funding than short-term research projects •Coordinate better between operational monitoring systems and research-funded observations, since both systems often use the same data and will have mutual benefit of collaboration •Improve the utilization of existing infrastructures on land and sea for more cost-effective collection of in situ data across multiple disciplines •Deploy more autonomous observing platforms in the sea ice areas for year-round operation and implement data collection from all types of ships operating in the Arctic ocean •Enhance the observing system on existing stations, including supersites, by use of new sensors and methods to validate satellite observations and support modelling and forecasting systems •Improve the exploitation of satellite data and coordinate better in situ and satellite observations for use in data assimilation, modelling and reanalyses •Clarify roles and responsibilities between data producers and managers and establish adequate funding mechanisms to support a functional data management system for multidisciplinary Arctic data., The reviewer's comments are not included in the present version, but are taken into account in the follow-up publications and in the Roadmap document (D1.10) developed during the final phase of the project.

Refined description from AtlantOS work of the societal imperatives for sustained Atlantic Ocean observations, the phenomena to observe, EOVs, and contributing observing networks.

A major goal of WP2: “Exploitation of existing observing systems” is to analyze strengths, weaknesses, gaps in spatial/temporal coverage, and missing monitoring parameters of the existing observation networks and databases in relation to the requirements from different user groups. This report is prepared to assess the existing ocean and sea ice observing systems in the Arctic, primary those where the INTAROS partners have responsibilities, but also where the partners contribute to larger, international observing systems. A core activity in the first 18 months of WP2 has been to conduct a survey where partners have responded to three sets of questionnaires: Questionnaire A: Existing Arctic In-situ Observing Systems, Questionnaire B: In-situ data collections, and Questionnaire C: Satellite Products. The survey has covered the scientific disciplines addressed in INTAROS, including atmosphere, ocean and terrestrial disciplines. The focus of the survey has been on in-situ observing systems, which is the priority of INTAROS, while satellite observing systems are treated more generally. This report therefore provides more details on selected in-situ systems and data collections than previous surveys and inventories. The reason or the detailed survey is that INTAROS will develop and demonstrate machine-to-machine operations between data repositories, following the FAIR data management principle (“Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Re-usable”). An expected outcome of the survey is identification of selected observing systems and data collections that will be used further in the project, especially in WP5 (“Data integration and management”) and WP6 (“Application of iAOS towards stakeholders”). A major part of the report is a status description of in situ observing systems that are operated by the partners (Section 2). In INTAROS we identify a set of data collected from the same types of instruments and platforms over time to be an observing system (for example CTD surveys by ships, network of moorings, glider surveys). An observing system is often defined programmatically, where many institutions agree to establish and operate a network of instruments collecting a set of standard measurements and agree on sharing and exploitation of the data (for example International Arctic Buoy Programme). We have also analysed selected in-situ data collections, which can be part of one or more observing systems, or can be a stand-along data set. This analysis has been more detailed, addressing spatial/temporal coverage, uncertainty characterisation and metadata description. Requirements for observing systems is discussed in Section 3, where requirements to platforms, instruments and data management are central. For in-situ data, it is most important to focus on data at level 0 (raw data), level 1 and level 2 (physical, biological variables). These data are needed by different users along the downstream processing chain. Level 3 and level 4 data are gridded data, usually coming from satellite data and reanalysis fields, with input from in-situ data where these are available. Ocean modelling, reanalysis of forecasting are important users of data from level 2 and higher. Requirements to observational data are described in documents from programmes such as WMO, GCOS, Copernicus. Other users are marine ecosystem management, marine hazards and environmental monitoring. The assessment of the observing systems is described in Section 4. The assessment criteria include the spatial and temporal coverage of the data collection, scientific-technical support, sustainability of funding, data management, data usage, user feedback and others. The criteria are assessed on a scale from 1 (low maturity) to 6 (high maturity). The technical readiness level for all the instruments is generally high, showing that the observing systems are generally robust. For biogeochemical, observations there are fewer automated systems compared to physical observation systems. This is reflected in much less collection of biogeochemical data compared to physical data. For the ice-covered Arctic, there is a huge gap in collection in-situ measurements Uncertainty characterisation and metadata have mid to low maturity, while data management varies a lot. It is noteworthy that data management becomes a discipline in itself because the amount of data grows very rapidly. Therefore, data producers and data managers require experts and training to be able to do a good job. Recommendations to develop and maintain in-situ observing systems are described in Section 5. There are significant efforts to build observing systems by many countries, organisations and projects in the Pan-Arctic region. The amount of data collected in the Arctic is growing and there are numerous initiatives to establish observing systems for collection of data in different disciplines. Many recommendations deal with technology development, collaboration and organisation. However, the funding of the observing systems is to a large extent dependent on time-limited research and observation projects. These systems are therefore not sustainable and there is a high risk that many will not be maintained in the future. Some satellite Earth Observation programmes, such as Copernicus, have long-term perspectives and funding plans for 5 – 10 years, but most of the observations from in-situ systems on ground and in water have no long-term funding. It is therefore essential to develop and maintain long-term in-situ observing systems to monitor trends, and to detect natural variations and human impacts on climate, environment, livelihoods and societies. This requires mechanisms for long-term funding to be established. This report only provides preliminary results of the assessment, because organisations outside of the consortium are not yet included in the survey. It is therefore planned to update the assessment later in the project.

A report providing an overall assessment of the performance of the AtlantOS observing system and recommendations to optimize AtlantOS and its European component

Prior to the 3rd annual meeting in month 32 a project progress report for the external project boards will be prepared to enable them to as good as possible prepared for the meeting and to ensure consequently that AtlantOS receives as constructive as possible recommendations from the board. The report together with the external summary board meeting report will be part of D11.6

Results of a cost and feasibility study of the present and planned integrated Atlantic Ocean Observing System, including assessing the readiness and feasibility of implementation of different observing technologies

The detailed analysis of phenomena and observation requirements for the Arctic region given in this report reveals the following conclusions: • The Arctic is a region very sensitive to environmental changes. There is a very close interrelation and delicate balance between the five thematic areas investigated(atmosphere, terrestrial, cryosphere, sea ice and ocean),especially in relation to solar energy and radiation budget and hydrological cycle. This has a great impact on physical, chemical and biological processes in the area. • Due to the hostile environment, there is a great lack of basic observations in the Arctic,that can support scientific understanding of key processes. Most of the existing data are collected via time limited research projects. This lack of process knowledge is reflected in big errors in forecasting models –operational as well as climate. • It is therefore crucial to establish a sustained Integrated Arctic Observing System,that in the short time frame can increase fundamental scientific understanding of the complex and sensitive Arctic environment and in a longer time frame can secure a robust basis for decision making to the benefit of the people living in the Arctic, the environment, the broader international society, and commercial activities. • It is foreseen that a future Arctic observation system will rely heavily on satellite observations supplemented by more traditional in-situ platforms. Especially the ocean will use several other platforms such as ships, profiling floats, gliders, moorings, AUVs etc. to monitor the interior of the Arctic Ocean. • In all countries around the Arctic, there are community based observing systems that represent a strong potential for further development. Existing activities shall form part of the natural basis for a future more intensive and integrated sustainable Arctic Observing System. • A stakeholder workshop was held in Brussel on 5 May, organised by EuroGOOS, where status and challenges regarding development of Arctic Observing Systems were discussed. In addition to technical and logistical challenges, there are also organisational barriers to building and operating a multidisciplinary observing system. These issues will be addressed in follow-up workshops.

Analysis of the capacities and gaps of the present Atlantic Ocean Observing System

Initial description from ongoing work of the societal imperatives for sustained Atlantic Ocean observations, the phenomena to observe, EOVs, and contributing observing networks

Meereswissenschaftliche Berichte No 58 2004 - Marine Science Reports No 58 2004, An exceptional warm inflow from the Kattegat into the southern and central Baltic Sea in summer and autumn 2002 is documented in detail by observational data from the Danish Straits and the Darss Sill, from the Arkona, Bornholm, Gdańsk and eastern Gotland Basins, as well as by selected numerical model results. Comprehensive measurements are presented from permanent observation platforms, from occasional as well as regular ship-borne monitoring profiles, completed with various meteorological and gauge background records. The actual event is discussed within its climatological and historical context by various hydrographic long-term series. The inflow described in this paper occurred during a long-lasting stagnation period of the Baltic Sea and caused, among other things, a ventilation of deep waters in the Gdańsk Deep and a reduction of hydrogen sulphide concentrations in the Gotland Deep. It was followed in January 2003 by a major Baltic inflow which terminated the stagnation period by a strong intrusion of cold and oxygen-rich Kattegat waters. The warm inflow was characterized by various unusual meteorological and hydrographic features which are thoroughly discussed., Ein außergewöhnlicher, warmer Einstrom vom Kattegat in die südliche und zentrale Ostsee im Sommer und Herbst 2002 wird in seinen Einzelheiten dokumentiert mit Beobachtungsdaten von Belt und Sund, von der Darßer Schwelle, vom Arkona-, Bornholm-, Danziger und dem östlichen Gotlandbecken sowie mit ausgewählten numerischen Modellergebnissen. Umfassende Messungen werden präsentiert von permanenten Beobachtungsplattformen, gelegentlichen und regelmäßigen Profilen von Forschungs- und Überwachungsfahrten, ergänzt durch diverse Hintergrunddaten zum Wetter und zum Pegelstand. Das aktuelle Ereignis wird mittels zahlreicher Langzeitreihen in seinem klimatologischen und historischen Umfeld erläutert. Der in dieser Arbeit beschriebene Einstrom fand während einer lang andauernden Stagnationsperiode der Ostsee statt und verursachte unter anderem die Belüftung des Tiefenwassers im Danziger Tief sowie die Verringerung der Schwefelwasserstoffkonzentration im Gotlandtief. Er wurde im Januar 2003 gefolgt von einem großen Einstrom in die Ostsee, der die Stagnationsperiode durch einen starken Zufluss von kaltem und sauerstoffreichem Kattegatwasser beendete. Der warme Einstrom ist durch zahlreiche ungewöhnliche meteorologische und hydrographische Eigenheiten charakterisiert, die eingehend diskutiert werden.

Results from hydrographical and halocarbon tracer measurements during an oceanographic expedition with the Norwegian R/V Johan Hjort to the Norwegian Sea, the Faroe Bank Channel, the Iceland and the Irminger Basins and the Iceland Sea are presented. Special attention has been given the overflow waters over the Iceland-Scotland ridge and through the Denmark Strait. While the Denmark Strait overflow does not mix significantly with surrounding waters during its descent into the Irminger Basin, the Iceland-Scotland overflow is signiticantly entrained by ambient waters within the Iceland Basin. By multivariate analysis using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Partial Least Square (PLS) calibration, it can be concluded that the overflow water masses contain onlv minor fractions of the bottom waters in the Norwegian and the Iceland Seas, respectively, which means about one fourth Norwegian Sea Deep Water (NSDW) over the Iceland-Faroe ridge, while, over the sill in the Denmark Strait, the fraction of Iceland Sea Bottom Water (ISBW) is about one third. CFC tracers were used to assign apparent ages of water masses, showing that the NSDW has an apparent age of about 30 years and the ISBW has an apparent age of more than 25 years. Through the deepest parts of the Faroe Bank Channel flows water with an apparent age of about 20 years with an origin at about 1000 m depth in the Norwegian Sea. Labrador Sea Water (LSW) with an age of around 20 years was found in the Iceland Basin, while the LSW in the Irminger Basin is significantly younger, two cores were found, one of an age of 11-12 years underlain by a 6 years younger core. The Northeast Atlantic Bottom Water in the lceland Basin, which has an Antarctic origin, was observed circulating cyclonically within the basin.

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