Search

While the breeding and wintering ranges of the eastern population of Barrow's Goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica) are generally described, molting locations and links among breeding, molting, and wintering areas are unclear, particularly for adult females. Incubating females from the same breeding location (n = 5) were equipped with satellite transmitters in June 2009. Four molting sites were identified over 2 years, spread broadly across Quebec: an inlet in Ungava Bay 1,100 km from the breeding area, a lake 100 km south of Ungava Bay (880 km from breeding area), a lake near Hudson Bay (910 km from breeding area) and the mouth of the Riviere aux Outardes River in the St. Lawrence Estuary (165 km from breeding area). The distance between molting females averaged 755 km and two females molted in regions where males were known to molt. Of four birds with consecutive years of molt locations, three showed inter-annual fidelity to within 5 km of the previous molt sites and the fourth molted in sites that were 968 km apart. Females wintered in different locations within the St. Lawrence Estuary and moved widely throughout the area during winter. The south coast of the St. Lawrence Estuary was used during spring and fall staging, and the north coast during winter. There was not strong migratory connectivity among annual cycle stages in eastern adult female Barrow's Goldeneyes, indicating that they should be considered a single management unit that occurs over a broad range throughout the year.

Barrow's goldeneyes are sea ducks that winter throughout coastal British Columbia (BC). Their diet consists primarily of intertidal blue mussels, which can accumulate PAHs; accordingly, goldeneyes may be susceptible to exposure through contaminated prey. In 2014/15, we examined total PAH concentrations in mussels from undeveloped and developed coastal areas of BC. At those same sites, we used EROD to measure hepatic CYP1A induction in goldeneyes. We found higher mussel PAH concentrations at developed coastal sites. Regionally, goldeneyes from southern BC, which has relatively higher coastal development, had higher EROD activity compared to birds from northern BC. Our results suggest goldeneyes wintering in coastal BC were exposed to PAHs through diet, with higher exposure among birds wintering in coastal areas with greater anthropogenic influence. These results suggest the mussel-goldeneye system is suitable as a natural, multi-trophic-level indicator of contemporary hydrocarbon contamination occurrence and exposure useful for establishing oil spill recovery endpoints.

The eastern North American population of Barrow's goldeneyes winters in the St. Lawrence Estuary and Gulf of St. Lawrence where the sediments and food web are known to be contaminated with inorganic and organic compounds. Therefore, there is a potential for contamination of this population, which is designated of Special Concern by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Specimens were collected during three consecutive winters (2005-2007) in three regions (Manicouagan, Charlevoix, and Chaleur Bay) and analysed for metals, trace elements, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides, and brominated flame retardants (BFRs). Liver mercury levels were greater in the St. Lawrence Estuary (4.4 mg/kg in Manicouagan, 3.8 mg/kg in Charlevoix) than in Chaleur (2.4 mg/kg), whereas selenium showed the opposite pattern (7.3 mg/kg in Manicouagan, 7.0 mg/kg in Charlevoix, and 36.9 mg/kg in Chaleur). Liver PCB levels were greater in specimens from Manicouagan (236 ng/g) than in those from the two other regions (72 ng/g in Charlevoix, 35 ng/g in Chaleur). DDT was greater in Chaleur (66 ng/g) versus 10 ng/g in Manicouagan and 16 ng/g in Charlevoix. BFRs were not compared among regions because of smaller sample sizes, but mean total concentration was low (4.02 ng/g). Overall, although significant differences were found across regions, levels of all contaminants measured are generally low and not of toxicological concern for this population.

Conspecific brood parasites lay their eggs in the nests of other females in the same population, leading to a fascinating array of possible ‘games’ among parasites and their hosts (Davies 2000; Lyon & Eadie 2008). Almost 30 years ago, Andersson & Eriksson (1982) first suggested that perhaps this form of parasitism was not what it seemed—indeed, perhaps it was not parasitism at all!Andersson & Eriksson (1982) observed that conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) was disproportionally common in waterfowl (Anatidae), a group of birds for which natal philopatry is female-biased rather than the more usual avian pattern of male-biased natal philopatry. Accordingly, Andersson (1984) reasoned (and demonstrated in an elegantly simple model) that relatedness among females might facilitate the evolution of CBP—prodding us to reconsider it as a kin-selected and possibly cooperative breeding system rather than a parasitic interaction. The idea was much cited but rarely tested empirically until recently—a number of new studies, empowered with a battery of molecular techniques, have now put Andersson’s hypothesis to the test (Table 1). The results are tantalizing, but also somewhat conflicting. Several studies, focusing on waterfowl, have found clear evidence that hosts and parasites are often related (Andersson & Ahlund 2000; Roy Nielsen et al. 2006; Andersson & Waldeck 2007; Waldeck et al. 2008; Jaatinen et al. 2009; Tiedemann et al. 2011). However, this is not always the case (Semel & Sherman 2001; Anderholm et al. 2009; and see Poysa 2004). In a new study reported in this issue of Molecular Ecology, Jaatinen et al. (2011a) provide yet another twist to this story that might explain not only why such variable results have been obtained, but also suggests that the games between parasites and their hosts—and the role of kinship in these games—may be even more complex than Andersson (1984) imagined. Indeed, the role of kinship in CBP may be very much one of relative degree! Table 1. A summary of recent studies that have tested for evidence of relatedness between hosts and parasites in avian conspecific brood parasites Species Evidence of host–parasite relatedness? Evidence of local kin structure? Relatedness > expected spatially r Host–Parasite r Population Costs or benefits measured? Method Source CBP, conspecific brood parasitism. Common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) Mixed Some parasitism between relatives Yes Limited dispersal of both sexes No Not greater than expected — — No (but discussed) DNA minisatellite fingerprints McRae & Burke (1996) Common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) Yes Number of parasitic eggs also increased with relatedness Not tested; high female philopatry Yes 0.132 — No Protein fingerprints 50 bands Andersson & Ahlund (2000) Wood duck (Aix sponsa) No (parasites avoid relatives) Not tested; high female philopatry No Significantly less likely to parasitize local kin — — No Behavioural observation Semel & Sherman (2001) Common goldeneye (B. clangula) No Relatedness unlikely to explain CBP Not tested Not measured — — Yes Field measures Poysa (2004) Wood duck (A. sponsa) Yes (for primary parasites) No Yes (for primary parasites) 0.04 (all) 0.11 (primary parasites) 0.01–0.02 No 5 microsatellites Roy Nielsen et al. (2006) Common eider (Mollissima somateria) Yes No Yes 0.122 (all) 0.126, 0.162 (two colonies) −0.065 (neighbours 1–10 m) No Protein fingerprints 30 bands Andersson & Waldeck (2007) Common eider (M. somateria) Yes Number of parasitic eggs also increased with relatedness Yes Relatedness declined with distance Possibly Host–parasite relatedness > close neighbours in 1 of 2 analyses 0.18–0.21 0.09 (neighbours) No Protein fingerprints 51 bands Waldeck et al. (2008) Barnacle goose (Branta llucopsis) No Weak Females within 40 m more closely related No 0.04 −0.0008 No Protein fingerprints 28 bands Anderholm et al. (2009) Barrow’s goldeneye (Bucephala islandica) Yes Number of parasitic eggs increased with relatedness Weak Slight decline in relatedness with distance No Host–parasite relatedness similar to neighbours 0.08 −0.015 0.11 (neighbours) No 19 microsatellites Jaatinen et al. 2009 Common eider (M. somateria) Yes Interaction with parasite status No Yes 0.39 (mean) 0.48, 0.28 (different sites) 0.0 No 7 microsatellites Tiedemann et al. (2011)

Sites where Barrow's Goldeneye (Bucephala islandica) undergo remigial molt and fall staging are poorly known, with only two major sites documented in Alaska and the Yukon Territory. Satellite telemetry, aerial surveys and ground surveys were used to identify previously unknown molting and fall staging areas in the Boreal Transition Zone (BTZ) of northern Alberta. Of 816 wetlands surveyed between 2004 and 2006 in the BTZ, 40–45% (105–127 lakes annually) had molting goldeneyes. Of these, 1.3–3.3% were used by large aggregations of goldeneyes (>100 birds). Two wetlands, Cardinal and Leddy Lakes, were particularly important, with an estimated 5,000–7,000 Barrow's Goldeneyes, primarily adult males, using these sites during remigial molt and fall staging. Birds used these sites up to five months or over one-third of their annual cycle. Half of adult males marked with satellite transmitters at a breeding area in interior British Columbia used Cardinal Lake for postbreeding activities. Discovery of thes...

Barrow's Goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica) are secondary cavity nesters found in western North America and, to a lesser extent, in eastern North America. The eastern North American population is concentrated in the province of Quebec and totals about 2000 pairs. Characteristics of nest cavities used by Barrow's Goldeneyes have been described in western North America, but no nest cavities have been found in eastern North America. From 2004 to 2008, we searched for nest cavities in the species’ core breeding area in the boreal forests north of the St. Lawrence River. We captured 12 adult females on their breeding grounds and fitted them with transmitters, but none apparently nested so we conducted ground searches in areas near lakes where paired birds were observed. We found 11 cavities, with 10 in dead, decaying trees and one in the dead part of a dying tree. Nine cavities were in white birch (Betula papyrifera) trees. Mean cavity height was 3.5 ± 1.6 (SD) m (range = 1.2–6.6 m) and mean diameter at breast height (DBH) of cavity trees was 37.8 ± 4.7 cm (range = 32.2–47.5 cm). In contrast to the population in western North America, Barrow's Goldeneyes in eastern North America appear to rely on the availability of natural cavities formed in large, decaying trees for nesting. Current forestry regulations in Quebec do not promote the retention of either large trees or older forests, reducing the availability of potential nest cavities for Barrow's Goldeneyes and likely threatening their long-term conservation. Therefore, we recommend that guidelines be developed to promote silvicultural practices aimed at preserving the long-term availability of large (DBH ≥ 30 cm) decaying trees across the breeding range of Barrow's Goldeneyes. RESUMEN El Pato de Barrow's (Bucephala islandica) se encuentra en la parte oeste de Norte America, y en menor grado, en la parte este del continente. Este anida en cavidades secundarias. La poblacion del este de Norte America, esta concentrada en la provincia de Quebec y se estima en unas 2000 parejas. Las caracteristica de las cavidades utilizadas para anidar por este pato en la parte oeste de Norte America han sido descritas, pero las de la parte este del continente americano, no han sido encontradas y descritas. De 2004–2008, buscamos cavidades utilizadas por esta especie, en el bosque boreal al norte del Rio St. Lawrence. Capturamos 12 hembras adultas y les colocamos radiotransmisores pero estas aparentemente no se reprodujeron. Por tal razon buscamos en los alrededores de areas cerca del lago en donde observamos parejas. Encontramos 11 cavidades, 10 en arboles muertos, y que se estaban descomponiendo, y uno en una parte muerta de un arbol que se estaba muriendo. Nueve cavidades fueron encontradas en Betula papyrifera. La altura promedio de las cavidades resulto ser de 3.5 ± 1.6 (SD) m (alcance = 1.2–6.6 m), y el DBH fue de 37.8 ± 4.7 cm (alcance = 32.2–47.5 cm). En contraste a la poblacion del oeste de Norte America, la del este parece depender, para anidar, de la disponibilidad de cavidades naturales que se forman en arboles viejos que se estan descomponiendo. Las regulaciones de silvicultura en Quebec no promueven la retencion ya sea de arboles grandes o bosques viejos, reduciendo la disponibilidad potencial de cavidades para el anidamiento del pato, y de esta manera amenazando su conservacion a largo alcance. Por lo tanto recomendamos que se desarrollen guias de silvicultura dirigidas a preservar arboles grandes (DBH > 30 cm) que se esten descomponiendo a lo largo del area utilizada para la reproduccion por parte del Pato de Barrow's.

Conspecific brood parasitism (CBP) occurs in over 200 species of birds. Efforts to detect CBP have relied on either observational criteria, or more recently, on molecular methods. While molecular approaches are powerful, they are expensive, time consuming and may prove prohibitive for studies requiring estimates of CBP over large spatial and temporal scales involving hundreds of nests. We evaluated a series of observational methods that have been applied in previous studies to detect CBP, using two species of cavity-nesting ducks, the Barrow's goldeneye Bucephala islandica and common goldeneye B. clangula, as test species. We first describe a method based on differences in egg morphology and find it to be a reliable method to detect CBP in both species in British Columbia, Canada. The application of recursive partitioning analysis was especially effective in classifying parasitized and non-parasitized nests using differences in egg morphology. We then evaluated five additional observational criteria that have been used previously in several studies to detect CBP in birds. We show that considerable redundancy exists among all criteria, as expected, but no single method is effective at detecting all suspected cases of CBP. Subsets of criteria (2 or more eggs/d, eggs laid 2 or more days after incubation, and clutch sizes exceeding 12 eggs) were successful, in combination, in detecting 75% of parasitized nests for goldeneyes. Finally, we suggest that ecological and evolutionary analyses of the dynamics of CBP will require estimates of the frequency of the parasitic tactic in the population (rather than just the proportion of parasitized nests) and we provide a simple method to obtain such an estimate. Although our data are specific to goldeneyes, the techniques we used should have broad application to other studies of CBP.

Our study addresses winter spatial distribution of Barrow’s Goldeneyes ( Bucephala islandica (Gmelin, 1789)) and Common Goldeneyes ( Bucephala clangula (L., 1758)) at the scale of the St. Lawrence marine system (estuary and northwestern gulf), eastern Canada. Our objectives were (i) to identify and compare the physical factors that control their distributions, (ii) to quantify the level of sympatry between the two species, and (iii) to compare their distribution patterns. We analyzed large-scale synoptic views of winter distribution of both goldeneye species obtained through helicopter-borne surveys. Habitat description was obtained through spatial analyses and remote sensing. Both species showed strong preference for the tidal zone and river mouths. A multiscale analysis showed a decreasing level of sympatry as spatial resolution was refined. The distribution of the Barrow’s Goldeneye was more clustered compared with that of the Common Goldeneye, and Barrow’s Goldeneye was repeatedly observed in the same few areas. A use-availability analysis identified the northern coast of the St. Lawrence estuary as the main wintering ground for Barrow’s Goldeneye in eastern North America.

Addition of eggs to nests of conspecifics is a common avian alternative breeding strategy, called conspecific brood parasitism. The consequences of this breeding strategy on recipient breeding success have seldom been quantified, while taking into account environmental factors and host female characteristics. We study the occurrence of nest parasitism and, using an information theoretic approach, the most important factors responsible for nest desertion in female Barrow's goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica). Nest parasitism is common in the study populationpopulation, and 58% of the nests contained non-natal eggs, representing 20% of all eggs. A prime factor explaining nest desertion was the number of non-natal eggs. There were also significant effects of year and own clutch size. By contrast, ambient temperature and female laying date did not influence nest desertion. These results provide one of the first demonstrations that non-natal eggs can have substantial negative effects also in precocial species.

Recent studies, which have found evidence for kin-biased egg donation, have sparked interest in re-assessing the parasitic nature of conspecific brood parasitism (CBP). Since host-parasite kinship is essential for mutual benefits to arise from CBP, we explored the role of relatedness in determining the behaviour of conspecific nest parasites and their hosts in nesting female Barrow's goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica), a duck in which CBP is common. The results revealed that the amount of parasitism increased with host-parasite relatedness, the effect of which was independent of geographical proximity of host and parasite nests. Proximity per se was also positively associated with the amount of parasitism. Furthermore, while hosts appeared to reduce their clutch size as a response to the presence of parasitic eggs, the magnitude of host clutch reduction also tended to increase with increasing relatedness to the parasite. Hence, our results indicate that both relatedness and spatial proximity are important determinants of CBP, and that host clutch reduction may be an adaptation to nest parasitism, modulated by host-parasite relatedness. Taken together, the results provide a demonstration that relatedness influences host and parasite behaviour in Barrow's goldeneyes, resulting in kin-biased egg donation.

We used capture–resight data to evaluate apparent survival, natal philopatry, and recruitment of Barrow’s goldeneyes ( Bucephala islandica (Gmelin, 1789)) in British Columbia, Canada. Median ages of first pairing and first breeding for females were 2 years and 3 years, respectively. The Cormack–Jolly–Seber model that best fit our data indicated that apparent survival rates (Φ) differed according to sex, year, and age class at marking. Estimates were similar for after-hatch-year (AHY) females (0.62) and AHY males (0.58), which was consistent with predictions. However, contrary to predictions, apparent survival rates of hatch-year (HY) females (0.68) were similar to those of AHY females and significantly higher than those of HY males (0.35). We interpret this difference as being primarily related to higher dispersal probabilities by HY males. Also evident was a negative correlation between apparent survival rate during the 1st year after capture for HY birds and their subsequent apparent survival rates, which suggests that probability of dispersal increased after these birds reached reproductive maturity and began to compete for breeding territories. We interpret this as evidence for density-dependent control of access to limited resources such as nest cavities.

1. Shellfish farming is an expanding segment of marine aquaculture, but environmental effects of this industry are only beginning to be considered. 2. The interaction between off-bottom, suspended oyster farming and wintering sea ducks in coastal British Columbia was studied. Specifically, the habitat use of surf scoters (Melanitta perspicillata) and Barrow's goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica), the most abundant sea duck species in the study area, was evaluated in relation to natural environmental attributes and shellfish aquaculture. 3. The extent of shellfish farming was the best-supported habitat variable explaining variation in surf scoter densities, and the only habitat attribute from the considered set that was a strong predictor of Barrow's goldeneye densities. In both cases, the findings indicated strong positive relationships between densities of sea ducks and shellfish aquaculture operations. These relationships are presumably the result of large numbers of wild mussels (Mytilus trossulus) that settle and grow on aquaculture structures and are preferred prey of these sea ducks. 4. Previous work has shown that aquaculture structures provide good conditions for recruiting and growing mussels, including refuge from invertebrate predators, which in turn provides higher densities of higher quality prey for sea ducks than available in intertidal areas. This offers a rare example in which introduction of an industry leads to positive effects on wildlife populations, which is particularly important given persistent declines in numbers of many sea ducks. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The 25,000 km of shoreline in southeast Alaska was surveyed for waterbirds by fixed-wing aircraft in summer and winter during the period 1997 to 2002. A ground/boat survey double sampled 20% of the summer habitat and 5% of the winter habitat to adjust and enhance the air survey. The most abundant species during the summer surveys, with visibility correction factors applied, were gulls (Larus spp.; 306,200, CV = 0.004), scoters (Melanitta spp.; 185,700, CV = 0.004), and Harlequin Duck (Histrionicus histrionicus; 34,640, CV = 0.03). The most abundant species observed during the winter surveys were goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica and B. clangula; 121,920, CV = 0.01), gulls (105,000, CV = 0.01), Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos; 98,090, CV = 0.01), scoters (77,300, CV = 0.01), Harlequin Duck (54,540, CV = 0.02), Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola; 46,840, CV = 0.03), and mergansers (Mergus spp.; 39,940, CV = 0.02). The variance estimates did not include uncertainty about the visibility correction factors. We o...

We investigated environmental variables linked to presence of Barrow's Goldeneye (Bucephala islandica) pairs from the eastern North American population on 412 lakes of the Sainte-Marguerite River watershed, Quebec, Canada. We analysed habitat relationships at two spatial scales (i.e., considering all lakes surveyed and high elevation lakes only) and predetermined the high elevation lakes as those including 90% of Barrow's Goldeneye occurrences. Barrow's Goldeneye were found on 59 lakes, all of which were ≥490 m elevation (maximum = 822 m) with 90% at ≥610 m. Six variables tested using multivariate logistic regressions contributed to explain the occurrence of goldeneyes. Four were significant (P < 0.10) in both the complete and the high elevation data sets: nest boxes (+) and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) (−) occurrences, altitude (+), and the interaction between altitude and mean slope (+). The models explained only a small proportion of Barrow's Goldeneye occurrence for both data sets (R2 ...

Barrow's Goldeneye females with broods in the Lake Mývatn district, Iceland, concentrated in a small area in the lake's outlet where the density of blackfly Simulium vittatum larvae, the principal food of the young, was highest. A downstream migration of broods took place as predicted from the growth pattern and emergence of blackflies in the river.

We compared density and morphology of wild mussels Mytilus trossulus growing natu- rally on shellfish farming structures to that of mussels from nearby intertidal areas, and considered the relevance to molluscivorous sea ducks. Mussel density on aquaculture structures greatly exceeded that of intertidal areas and farm mussels were larger, had lower shell mass, and had weaker byssal attachments. Differences in environmental conditions and predation regimes through- out the summer growing season were likely responsible for these differences. These morphological and density differences, in turn, have important implications for their primary winter predators, sea ducks, including surf scoters Melanitta perspicillata and Barrow's goldeneyes Bucephala islandica. Higher levels of mussel depletion in farm habitats and strong associations of ducks with shellfish farms indicate that sea ducks responded to this novel, profitable prey resource. Our results support recent research that indicates that artificial structures introduced into coastal areas create novel marine habitats that can support unique communities of epibiota. That sea ducks appear to profit from the introduction of aquaculture structures is evidence of a positive effect of anthropogenic modifications in a coastal environment.

Barrow’s (Bucephala islandica) and Common (B. clangula) goldeneyes winter in large numbers in the St. Lawrence estuary and little is known of their distribution and diet. The objective of the study was to characterize how these two similar species, co-existed in the St. Lawrence estuary during the non-breeding season. Their local distribution, diet, and dive efficiency were compared. There was little overlap in habitat use by both goldeneyes. Their distribution was not correlated in the autumn (r = 0.04) but was in the spring (0.68). Autumn and spring distributions were more correlated in Common Goldeneyes (r = 0.82) than in Barrow’s Goldeneyes (r = 0.49). Both species moved to the north shore of the estuary during January and February 1999 as south shore intertidal areas froze. Barrow’s Goldeneyes foraged in larger flocks than Common Goldeneyes (x = 20.3 vs 9.8 birds) and flocks were larger in autumn than spring. Both species fed on amphipods but differed in their use of gastropods (Barrow’s Go...

We evaluated and monitored use of 105–133 nest boxes by Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) and Barrow's Goldeneye (Bucephala islandica) during 1999–2004 on 60 lakes of high plateaus of the Laurentian Highlands, in the boreal forest of Quebec, Canada. Only three species of birds used nest boxes regularly, American Kestrel (Falco sparverius), Barrow's Goldeneye, and Common Goldeneye. The proportion of nest boxes used by goldeneyes in 2000–2004 ranged from 23 to 43% whereas hatching success ranged from 37 to 67%. Successful Barrow's and Common goldeneye clutches averaged 6.76 ± 0.38 (SE, n = 29) and 7.77 ± 0.44 eggs (n = 31), respectively. Predation in nest boxes was not a major mortality factor. Goldeneyes used all nest boxes independent of their location but reproductive success was lower in nest boxes 25–160 m from shore in clearcuts. The number of Barrow's and Common goldeneye breeding pairs increased between 1999 and 2003, but number of broods remained stable after an increase in 2000.

We investigated the relationships between egg nutrient constituents and fresh egg mass in Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) and Barrow's Goldeneye (B. islandica). We found consistently positive relationships between egg mass and yolk, albumen, lipid, mineral, and water (absolute amounts); however, the proportions of nutrient components to fresh mass were highly variable in the eggs of both species (allometric relationships). In Bufflehead eggs, all components except mineral exhibited negative allometry with fresh egg mass. In Barrow's Goldeneye eggs, only mineral exhibited negative allometry, whereas yolk, lipid, and water all exhibited positive allometry with fresh egg mass. Overall, larger eggs of both species contained greater absolute amounts of nutrients; therefore, larger eggs were of better quality than smaller eggs. Nutrient content, however, was more highly correlated with mass in Barrow's Goldeneye eggs than in Bufflehead eggs. We propose that this may be due to the source of egg nutrients...

We compared time-budgets and return rates of breeding female Barrow’s Goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica) fitted, or not, with transmitters attached with backpack harnesses in 2001-2004 in southern Quebec. We compared the mean proportion of time devoted to feeding, locomotion, alert, resting, preening, and maintenance (i.e., resting plus preening) by females observed ≥200 min. Females with backpacks (N = 5) spent significantly less time feeding (x ± SE: 25 ± 5% versus 43 ± 3%) and more time in maintenance activities (51 ± 6% versus 31 ± 4%) than females without transmitters (N = 6). Mean time devoted to other behavior did not differ significantly. Upon release, females appeared disturbed with the backpack, actively bathing, preening and/or flapping wings. Of the females with transmitters observed ≥200 min, three spent 4%, 8%, and 57% of their preening time at their transmitter, antennae or harness. None of the 16 females harnessed in 2001-2003 were recaptured in nest boxes or seen again on the study...