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Children aged 3-15 frequently use internet-enabled technologies for leisure and educational purposes, yet they have limited knowledge about how the internet works. Literature also indicates that children possess varied and often contradictory internet-related ideas, which have not yet been systematized. This systematic review, drawing from 27 mixed-methods and qualitative studies (N = 2,214) from the last two decades (2002-2022), organizes these ideas through a thematic analysis with a specific focus on the age when individual child conceptions start to appear at the earliest. The findings are interpreted through the lenses of a Vygotskian framework. The results highlight 60 conceptions concerning general perceptions of the internet, internet infrastructure, and dataflow. Children appear to understand the internet primarily through their personal experiences. Perception of the internet as online activities is dominant in younger children, but also present among older ones. Children in all age groups are confused about what Wi-Fi really is; some equate it to the internet, others to the 'Wi-Fi box' (Wi-Fi router). The most knowledgeable older children view the internet as a global network with a complex internal, but only vaguely understood, structure. Typical reasoning among older children about the internet's structure includes satellites, central computers or central towers. Only expert children know about distributed, server-like storage. These results imply that children at the K-8 level need to be familiarized gradually with how the internet works, but teaching them this topic may prove to be challenging. This review also highlights the limitations of existing literature and presents suggestions for future research and designing technology-based curricula.

Game-based learning is supposed to motivate learners. However, to what degree does motivation driven by interest in playing an instructional game affect learning outcomes compared to motivation driven by interest in the very learning process? This is not known. In this study with a unique design and intervention, young adults (N = 128; a heterogeneous sample) learned how to control an electro-mechanical device in a 40- minute-long learning session integrated into a 2-hour-long educational live action roleplaying game (edu-LARP). Edu-LARPs are supposedly engaging games where players take part in team role-playing by physically enacting characters in a fictional universe. In our edu-LARP, players had to understand how the to-be-learned device worked in order to win the game. Departing from typical game-based learning research, learningand playing-related variables were assessed for each learner separately (i.e., a within-subject design). Affective-motivational factors related to playing (rather than learning) predicted learning outcomes in a positive, but considerably weaker, way compared to learning-related, affective-motivational factors. Developed interest in LARP-like games was primarily related to enjoying the game rather than better learning outcomes; whereas, developed interest in the instructional domain was primarily related to enjoyment of learning and better learning outcomes. Overall, autonomous motivation to play was connected to higher learning outcomes, but this connection was weak.

The instructional effects of customization features in child learning games have rarely been examined. This value-added study addresses the existing gap with regards to user-initiated cosmetic customization of environment elements (i.e., non-avatar customization). Participants (N = 143; M[subscript age] = 9.41) studied a biological topic for about 20 min: either using the experimental version of a learning game with customization features, or from a control version without them. Null results were found as concerns between-group differences: both for motivation-related variables and learning outcome measures. These findings indicate that user-initiated cosmetic customization features can be omitted by game designers, especially in settings where children are assigned specific instructional materials from which to study.

This study investigates a video game's effects on implicit and explicit attitudes towards depicted historical events in the short- and long-term on a sample of 148 young adults. We used, as an intervention tool, a serious game "Czechoslovakia 38-89: Borderlands" that deals with the expulsion of the Sudeten Germans from the former Czechoslovakia after the WWII. Results showed more negative pretest-posttest explicit attitude changes towards the expulsion on a general level (d = -0.34) and a specific level (d = -0.53) compared to the control group. Over the long-term, group differences in attitude change remained significant for the specific level (d = -0.44), but not for general one (d = -0.16). Exploratory analysis on the item level indicated that especially attitudes towards the expulsion's (un)fairness were affected by the game. However, no significant changes were found in implicit attitudes in the experimental group. This study is the first of such scale to empirically investigate video games' effects on a society's historical awareness.

The present study investigates affective-motivational, attention, and learning effects of unexplored emotional design manipulation: "Contextual animation" (animation of contextual elements) in multimedia learning game (MLGs) for children. Participants (N = 134; M[subscript age] = 9.25; Grades 3 and 4) learned either from an experimental version of the MLG with a high amount of contextual animation or from an identical MLG with no contextual animation (control). Children strongly preferred (X[superscript 2] = 87.04, p < 0.001) and found the experimental version more attractive (p < 0.001, d = -1.11). No significant differences in overall enjoyment and learning outcomes were found. Attention differences, measured by dwell times and fixation durations, were small and reached only borderline significance (p = 0.035; d = -0.39). The implication is that contextual animation in MLG for children increases such instructional materials' attractiveness without compromising cognitive processes needed for learning; however, it does not lead to their higher instructional efficiency.

Little is known about the instructional effects of narrative framing elements in child learning games. In this study, second and third graders (M[subscript age] = 8.24) played one of two versions of a successful, commercial mathematical learning game at home for 2 weeks (N = 95; between-subject design). The versions differed in the presence/absence of a background story conveyed through comic cutscenes at the beginning and the end of the game. Results showed that children played the game intensively in both conditions: despite not being forced to do so. Plus, they also learned from the game. As expected, children assigned to the cutscenes condition interfaced with the cutscenes. However, no between-group difference was detected in pre-post learning gains, parent-reported engagement, self-reported enjoyment, time spent with the game and the number of solved in-game tasks (all |"ds"| < 0.29). Altogether, no advantage or disadvantage from the narrative comic cutscenes was revealed.

We explored whether problem-solving interactivity within an instructional game fosters learning for children aged 8-10 years. Participants (N=139) studied a biological topic either through a game-based learning environment (in which they solved assigned problems by interacting with a plant model) or from a standard learning environment (in which they observed how the problems were solved in an animation) (i.e., between-subject design). The treatments were equal with regard to learning content and guidance. No between-group differences in learning outcomes were detected (comprehension: d=0.16; transfer: d=-0.01). Self-rating of enjoyment tended to be higher in the game group (d=0.32), and when the children could choose between the treatments in a free-choice period, they strongly preferred the interactive game (87.5%). The results suggest that both the interactive and the non-interactive treatments are useful, but their applicability may differ depending on the learning context (e.g., school vs. home).

Despite the increased interest in gamification approaches, there is a lack of comparative studies that shed light on the applicability of these approaches in educational contexts. In this explorative study, with an experimental design, university learners (N = 98) studied a complex process (i.e., how to brew beer) in a 2-hour-long computerized simulation. In the experimental condition, the simulation featured the following game design elements: game goals, increased freedom of choice, points, virtual currency, and praise (i.e., a gamified simulation). These elements were absent in the simulation versions used in the two control conditions. No differences in learning outcomes and intrinsic motivation variables between the gamified simulation and its nongamified versions were observed. The gamified simulation was perceived to be significantly easier than the nongamified versions (?[subscript p, superscript 2] = 0.10; d = 0.74, 0.42). Of the game elements used in this study, the participants perceived most positively a clear, game-like goal. The findings are consistent with self-determination theory, cognitive-affective theory of learning from media, and cognitive load theory. The findings also support the emerging notion that caution should be applied when using gamification approaches in educational contexts.

Anthropomorphizing graphical elements in multimedia learning materials improves learning outcomes. The reasons for enhanced learning are unclear. We extended a seminal anthropomorphism study in order to examine whether the effect of anthropomorphisms on learning outcomes, both immediate and delayed, is caused by the anthropomorphized elements' effects on attention distribution or by elevated positive affective-motivational states. The study had a partial 3 × 2 design (the materials' graphics: schematic vs. black-and-white anthropomorphisms vs. colourful anthropomorphisms × eye tracker: present vs. absent). The participants were university students (N = 181). Unexpectedly, we found no significant effect of anthropomorphisms on learning outcomes. Anthropomorphisms significantly affected attention distribution during initial fixations but not overall. Modest effect on enjoyment was found, but no such effect was detected as concerns flow and generalized positive affect. We also found that the eye tracker's mere presence had slight adverse effects on learners, but these effects did not compromise learning.

Little is known about what design elements in digital learning games enhance learning; especially in the case of child audiences. This study examines the effects of a learning game's visual design on perceived attractiveness and learning outcomes. We developed two visual designs for the game: one with supposedly high esthetic value and another with a low esthetic value. Participants (children between 9 and 11 years of age, N = 53) were randomly divided into two groups. Each group interacted with their assigned version for about 20 minutes and then evaluated its visual attractiveness without knowing about the other version. Then, they evaluated the attractiveness of the complementary version. As the next step, they evaluated both versions side-by-side. During the free-choice period, children could continue playing one of the game versions or a different game. They clearly preferred the high esthetic version in evaluations (d > 0.86) and in the free-choice period (62% preferred the high esthetic version of the target game), but this did not improve their learning outcomes (comprehension: d = -0.59; transfer: d = -0.16). Possible explanations of this effect are discussed in terms of cognitive load theory and cognitive-affective theory of learning from media.

Background: Existing studies confirm that some video games can change players' attitudes. However, since we do not know the specific elements responsible for attitude change, the potential of video games to achieve desired educational or behavioural outcomes often remains unfulfilled. Objectives: To fill the research gap, our study examined whether the perspective‐taking game mechanic in the serious game Czechoslovakia 38–89: Borderlands, which had previously been shown to affect attitudes, would have the same effect on another sample of players with different characteristics. Methods: We have assessed the effect of a historical video game using a perspective‐taking mechanic on players' explicit and implicit attitudes. Explicit attitude changes were measured at a general level, meaning a broad evaluation of a depicted historical event, and at a specific level, meaning a more detailed evaluation of specific aspects of the event. Simultaneously, we measured the effect of players' perceived attitude importance on attitude change. The study used a sample of 137 young adults. Results and Conclusions: This study's results indicate a significant pretest‐posttest explicit attitude change on the general level and on a specific level in comparison to the control group. Perspective‐taking game mechanics is particularly important for explicit attitude change. No change was found in implicit attitudes. The effect of the perceived attitude importance on attitude change was not confirmed. Takeaways: As one of the first to focus on the effects of specific game mechanics on attitudes, this study confirmed that perspective‐taking has stable, short‐term effects on attitude change even across different research samples. Lay Description: What is currently known about the subject matter: It is unclear why some video games can change players' attitudes while others do not.Several studies confirm video games' effect on explicit, but not on implicit, attitudes.Research on the effects of game mechanics on attitude changes is in its infancy.Very few studies focus on what role player characteristics play in their attitude changes. What our paper adds to this: Perspective‐taking as game mechanics changes explicit attitudes across populations.Perceived importance of players' attitudes towards topics not necessarily affects attitude changes.We show that only some facets of attitudes are influenced by the video game. Implications of study findings for practitioners: Particular game mechanics seem to be essential for attitude changes in players.Attitude importance and other player characteristics need further research in the video game context.DIF‐C analysis can provide more detailed information on changes in more complex explicit attitude concepts.Video games can affect the way we interpret the world around us. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the alleged ability of digital game-based learning (DGBL) to foster positive affect and in turn improve learning, the link between affectivity and learning has not been sufficiently investigated in this field. Regarding learning from team-based games with competitive elements, even less is known about the relationship between competitiveness (as a dispositional trait) and induced positive affect. In this media comparison study with between-subject design, participants (N = 325; high school and college students) learned about the EU's policy agenda by means of a debate-based method delivered through one of three educational media: a) through a social role-playing game with competitive elements played on computers, b) through a very similar game played without computers and c) through a non-game workshop. Unlike many previous DGBL studies, this study used participant randomization and strived to address the teacher effect and the length of exposure effect, while also using the same learning materials and a very similar educational method for all three treatments. Both games induced comparatively higher generalized positive affect and flow. Participants also learned more with the games. Positive affect, but not flow, mediated the influence of educational media on learning gains. Participants' competitiveness was partly related to positive affect and experiencing flow but unrelated to learning gains. These outcomes held both when the game was played using computers, as well as without them. The study indicates that the ability of an educational intervention to instigate positive affect is an important feature that should be considered by educational designers.

Game-based learning is supposed to motivate learners. However, to what degree does motivation driven by interest in playing an instructional game affect learning outcomes compared to motivation driven by interest in the very learning process? This is not known. In this study with a unique design and intervention, young adults (N = 128; a heterogeneous sample) learned how to control an electro-mechanical device in a 40-minute-long learning session integrated into a 2-hour-long educational live action role-playing game (edu-LARP). Edu-LARPs are supposedly engaging games where players take part in team role-playing by physically enacting characters in a fictional universe. In our edu-LARP, players had to understand how the to-be-learned device worked in order to win the game. Departing from typical game-based learning research, learning- and playing-related variables were assessed for each learner separately (i.e., a within-subject design). Affective-motivational factors related to playing (rather than learning) predicted learning outcomes in a positive, but considerably weaker, way compared to learning-related, affective-motivational factors. Developed interest in LARP-like games was primarily related to enjoying the game rather than better learning outcomes; whereas, developed interest in the instructional domain was primarily related to enjoyment of learning and better learning outcomes. Overall, autonomous motivation to play was connected to higher learning outcomes, but this connection was weak.