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In England, a new model of apprenticeship was initiated in whose stated intention was to 'put employers in the driving seat'. Regulation of the new model was focused on the mandatory 20% of apprentices' work time allocated to off-the-job training offered by colleges and other training providers. Based on case studies of employers and training providers across a range of industry sectors, this paper brings together data from two projects researching the on-the-job and off-the-job training elements of the new model. Three contrasting modes of apprenticeship emerged: developing apprentices to become experts in an industry-wide community of practice; apprenticeship as staff development; and apprenticeship as income stream. These resulted from different forms of employer-provider collaboration, enabled through a marketized landscape of training providers, and flexibility in regulations that requires very little of employers. Utilising Fuller and Unwin's work on expansive and restrictive environments, we found that that the new model supports a range of apprenticeships some being excellent but also others that are not worthy of the me. The paper concludes that quality apprenticeships tended to be in traditional industries and relied on strong partnerships between employers and training providers that worked against the grain of competitive market relations.

The marked and persistent gender segregation in apprenticeship has been well documented. The social construction of 'male' and 'female' jobs is a key factor in the gendered patterns evident in career choice. Research on young women who have chosen careers in male-dominated occupations risks constructing them as 'Other', typically concluding that rather than challenging the gender binary, the women would reinforce it, echoing 'tomboy' identities according to which girls are aligning themselves with boys whilst devaluing femininity. Based on biographical interviews, this paper explores the role of gender in the career decision-making of one German and one English woman motor mechanic apprentice. It illustrates the strongly normative but highly contextual nature of gender as the two women negotiate identities in their quests to live 'liveable lives'. It will be argued that the rich and multi-faceted experiences of these two young women belie stereotypical accounts of gender, suggesting acceptable ways of being in male workspaces.

Successive governments have pledged to enhance the quality of apprenticeship in Britain so as to achieve "parity of esteem" with academic study. Yet, at the same time, the discourse of the academic-vocational divide has dominated the academic, policy-maker and practitioner debates. This paper draws on two recent studies designed to explore the learner identities of apprentices on different apprenticeship programmes: motor vehicle maintenance (level 2) and engineering (level 3). Through this work, we are able to explore the role of the academic-vocational divide in identity construction and to challenge assumptions about vocational learners. It will be argued, that, far from being "naturally practical", the young people draw on normative discursive categories in their construction of continuous identities. The findings raise important questions about the UK apprenticeship system as currently conceived, while at the same time drawing attention to the possibility for change.

The paper is based on a study of apprentices in retail and motor vehicle maintenance in England and Germany, exploring their perceptions of themselves as learners over time and in particular learning environments. The study combines biographical interviews with participant observation in colleges and workplaces. The paper examines the concept of emotion work in the context of retail apprenticeships. It explores the extent to which the skill of emotion management is developed through apprenticeship programmes and the meaning young people attach to it in the context of their individual biographies. Comparing the German dual system with the minimalist approach of an English supermarket, it concludes that emotion work may be part of an occupational competence offering positive means for identification as a critical resource for young people's negotiation of identity. The findings challenge existing conceptualisations of emotional labour and have important implications for the provision of apprenticeships in the service sector.

This article reports on a study of apprentices in England and Germany designed to explore young people's learner identities over time and in relation to particular learning environments. The research adopts a multi-method ethnographic approach, combining biographical interviews with multi-site participant observation. The article problematises the notion of participant observation and the possibility of obtaining meaningful data in short-term observations as part of a broader research design. It highlights the importance of the researcher role and the opportunities different roles entail for developing shared understanding and co-constructing meaning. It concludes that the observations yield important findings about the construction of identity in different sites and thus complement the interview data in enabling the researcher to reconstruct the apprentices' learner biographies.

The paper arises from my PhD thesis on the learner biographies of retail and motor vehicle maintenance apprentices in Germany and England which explores the interrelationship of social structures and individual agency in identity formation over time and in particular learning environments. The paper reports initial findings, focusing largely on the English case study of motor vehicle apprentices. It challenges common assumptions of young people in vocational education in England as second-chance learners being socialized into pursuing low-status occupations and invites reflection on the particular model of apprenticeship in England and its role in shaping young people's identity.

This paper highlights critical shortcomings in the approach to apprenticeship in England and argues that the proposed Apprenticeship Framework is unlikely to fulfil its stated aims of enhancing quality and quantity. The key weaknesses identified are a clear definition of what constitutes an apprenticeship framework, an educational component, employee involvement and lack of recognition of alternative college-based routes. Drawing on a recent cross-national study, the authors compare the English situation with the vocational education and training systems of other leading European countries. These embody a distinctly different approach and framework, being based on social partnership and the education of young people into a broadly defined occupation. It is shown how the current proposals mark a potential step backwards and a departure from the principles of the 1944 Education Act by ignoring general and civic educational elements in young people's formation. Above all, for any framework to be successful, it needs to take into account the longer term interests of employees, given changes in the labour market, and to address the issue of employer disengagement. The conclusions drawn suggest ways forward. (Contains 1 figure and 2 tables.)

The development of the European Qualification Framework (EQF) as a means of assessing the relative status of qualifications across the EU is described, together with its fundamental design characteristics, particularly the adoption of a "learning outcomes" approach. Ways in which it may be implemented, and possible difficulties in this, are explored through a discussion of Zones of Mutual Trust (ZMTs). Convergence and divergence between the Vocational education and training (VET) and qualification systems of selected occupations in England, Germany, France and the Netherlands are highlighted, and their implications for establishing and regulating cross-national equivalence of qualifications, including through the EQF, are explored. (Contains 2 notes.)

Purpose: Though the notion of competence is common terminology in European VET policy at national and supra-national level, understandings vary widely, both across countries and within. The particular conceptions of competence adopted in the EQF are themselves problematic and the framework allows for a variety of interpretations. The purpose of this paper is to clarify those applied in the EQF and the vocational education and qualifications systems of particular European countries and to contribute to the development of a transnational understanding of the term, one which is compatible with a rapidly changing labour market. Design/methodology/approach: Drawing on evidence from work funded by the Nuffield Foundation entitled "Cross-national Equivalence of Vocational Skills and Qualifications", the paper explores the various conceptions of competence in the EQF and the national systems: in particular in the sectors of construction, ICT and health: of England, Germany, France and The Netherlands. Findings: Interpretations are located on a continuum from the comprehensive occupational model traditionally found in many European countries to the task-focused model of the English NVQ system. Research limitations/implications: Much developmental work involving all stakeholders is necessary to arrive at a commonly agreed conception. A broad understanding of competence would relate to the potential of labour, itself determined through the occupational capacity embodied in the qualification. Practical implications: Zones of Mutual Trust need to be based on transnational categories of VET. Originality/value: The value of the paper is in seeking to go beyond identifying differences by developing transnational categories and suggesting the nature of Zones of Mutual Trust for implementing the EQF. (Contains 2 tables and 2 notes.)

This paper examines the notion of "competence" in the VET systems of France and England. While both countries have developed "competence-based" approaches, underlying the similar terminology are distinct meanings, rooted in the countries' institutional structures and labour processes. A key distinction is identified between a knowledge-based model in France and a skills-based model in England. Competence in the French sense is multi-dimensional and relies on the integration of practical and theoretical knowledge, as well as personal and social qualities within a broadly defined occupational field. By contrast, in England, competence refers to the performance of fragmented and narrowly defined tasks, with minimal underpinning knowledge. Thus, whereas "competence" in the English VET system usually denotes functional employability for what may be relatively low-skilled employment, in France, it encapsulates the multi-dimensional development of the individual as a citizen as well as an employee.

Policy debates on employability, lifelong learning and competence-based approaches suggest a convergence of VET approaches across European countries. Against the background of the creation of a European Qualifications Framework, this paper compares the VET systems of England, Germany and The Netherlands. The analysis reveals the distinct understandings and meanings of outwardly similar terms. These meanings are deeply rooted in the countries' institutional structures and labour processes and still inform national debates and policies today. The paper identifies a major distinction between a "knowledge-based" VET model in Germany and The Netherlands and a "skills-based" model in England. There is a need to develop trans-national categories that take into account the social construction of terms such as "skills" and "qualifications". (Contains 1 note.)

Purpose: This paper aims to explain the distinction between educational standards and learning outcomes and to indicate the problems that potentially arise when a learning outcomes approach is applied to a qualification meta-framework like the European Qualification Framework, or indeed to national qualification frameworks. Design/methodology/approach: The methods used are documentary, political and conceptual analysis, with some reference to empirical work carried out in relation to other projects. Findings: It is found that there are substantial differences between learning outcomes and standards with large educational and political implications. Furthermore, the "pure" form of learning outcomes approach contains a design flaw, which makes its coherent implementation problematic. Research limitations/implications: The stimulation of further research on learning outcomes based approaches to qualifications and the problems that arise in their implementation. Practical implications: The EU needs to think carefully about the fitness for purpose of the current descriptors for EQF and whether or not it is desirable to move away from a pure outcome-based approach to qualification frameworks and meta-frameworks. Originality/value: As far as the authors are aware, this is the first paper to draw attention to this distinction. (Contains 1 table and 4 notes.)

The marked and persistent gender segregation in apprenticeship has been well documented. The social construction of 'male' and 'female' jobs is a key factor in the gendered patterns evident in career choice. Research on young women who have chosen careers in male-dominated occupations risks constructing them as 'Other', typically concluding that rather than challenging the gender binary, the women would reinforce it, echoing 'tomboy' identities according to which girls are aligning themselves with boys whilst devaluing femininity. Based on biographical interviews, this paper explores the role of gender in the career decision-making of one German and one English woman motor mechanic apprentice. It illustrates the strongly normative but highly contextual nature of gender as the two women negotiate identities in their quests to live 'liveable lives'. It will be argued that the rich and multi-faceted experiences of these two young women belie stereotypical accounts of gender, suggesting acceptable ways of being in male workspaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Impact of women's advancement in the employment sector on management of finances in a household, with reference to Britain, is examined.