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Over the last 20 years, the incidence of vertical HIV transmission has decreased from 25%-42% to less than 1%. Although there are no signs of infection, the health of HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) infants is notoriously affected during the first months of life, with opportunistic infections being the most common disease. Some studies have reported effects on the vertical transfer of antibodies, but little is known about the subclass distribution of these antibodies. We proposed to evaluate the total IgG concentration and its subclasses in HIV+ mothers and HEU pairs and to determine which maternal factors condition their levels. In this study, plasma from 69 HEU newborns, their mothers, and 71 control pairs was quantified via immunoassays for each IgG isotype. Furthermore, we followed the antibody profile of HEUs throughout the first year of life. We showed that mothers present an antibody profile characterized by high concentrations of IgG1 and IgG3 but reduced IgG2, and HEU infants are born with an IgG subclass profile similar to that of their maternal pair. Interestingly, this passively transferred profile could remain influenced even during their own antibody production in HEU infants, depending on maternal conditions such as CD4+ T-cell counts and maternal antiretroviral treatment. Our findings indicate that HEU infants exhibit an altered IgG subclass profile influenced by maternal factors, potentially contributing to their increased susceptibility to infections., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Rodrigo T. Camacho-Pacheco et al.)

During pregnancy, the maternal body undergoes a considerable transformation regarding the anatomy, metabolism, and immune profile that, after delivery, allows for protection and nourishment of the offspring via lactation. Pregnancy hormones are responsible for the development and functionality of the mammary gland for breast milk production, but little is known about how hormones control its immune properties. Breast milk composition is highly dynamic, adapting to the nutritional and immunological needs that the infant requires in the first months of life and is responsible for the main immune modeling of breastfed newborns. Therefore, alterations in the mechanisms that control the endocrinology of mammary gland adaptation for lactation could disturb the properties of breast milk that prepare the neonatal immune system to respond to the first immunologic challenges. In modern life, humans are chronically exposed to endocrine disruptors (EDs), which alter the endocrine physiology of mammals, affecting the composition of breast milk and hence the neonatal immune response. In this review, we provide a landscape of the possible role of hormones in the control of passive immunity transferred by breast milk and the possible effect of maternal exposure to EDs on lactation, as well as their impacts on the development of neonatal immunity., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest All authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose for the manuscript “The hormonal physiology of immune components in breastmilk and their impact on tghe infant immune response”., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Introduction: HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) newborns suffer from higher risks of opportunistic infections during the first months of life compared to HIV-unexposed uninfected (HUU) newborns. Alterations in thymic mass, amounts of T helper (Th) cells, T-cell receptor diversity, and activation markers have been found in HEU newborns, suggesting alterations in T cell ontogeny and differentiation. However, little is known about the ability of these cells to produce specialized Th responses from CD4 + T cells., Method: To characterize the Th cell profile, we evaluated the frequency of Th 1 (CD183 + CD194 - CD196 - /CXCR3 + CCR4 - CCR6 - ), Th 2 (CD183 - CD194 + CD196 - /CXCR3 - CCR4 + CCR6 - ), Th 17 (CD183 - CD194 + CD196 + /CXCR3 - CCR4 + CCR6 + ), and CD4 + CD25 ++ blood T-cell phenotypes in 50 HEU and 25 HUU newborns. Early activation markers on CD4 + T cells and the Th cytokine profile produced from mononuclear cells under polyclonal T cell stimulation were also studied. Additionally, we probed the ability of CD4 + T cells to differentiate into interferon (IFN)-γ-producing Th 1 CD4 + T cells in vitro., Results: Lower percentages of differentiated Th 1 , Th 2 , Th 17, and CD4 + CD25 ++ T cells were found in blood from HEU newborns than in blood from HUU newborns. However, polyclonally stimulated Th cells showed a similar ability to express CD69 and CD279 but produced less secreted interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-4. Interestingly, under Th 1 differentiation conditions, the percentages of CD4 + IFN-γ + T cells and soluble IFN-γ were higher in HEU newborns than in HUU newborns., Conclusion: HEU neonates are born with reduced proportions of differentiated Th 1 /Th 2 /Th 17 and CD4 + CD25 ++ T cells, but the intrinsic abilities of CD4 + T cells to acquire a Th 1 profile are not affected by the adverse maternal milieu during development., (© 2021 The Authors. Immunity, Inflammation and Disease published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)