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In order to analyze the community composition of herpetofauna in the Dahomey Gap area in West Africa, we studied the amphibians and reptiles of distinct sites in Benin. Our aims were to highlight whether these communities are homogeneous (as can be predicted by the fact that the Dahomey Gap is a relatively homogeneous vegetation zone) or whether there are remarkable site-specific differences. In particular, we tested the hypothesis that there should be significant differences in community composition between savannah and the open forest remnants or gallery forests along the riverine sites, by applying a Visual Encounter Survey protocol. We found that the herpetological species were typically those of the West African savannahs, with no species belonging to another ecosystem different from the Guinean and Sudanian savannahs. Anthropophilic species were also frequently observed. Our study also documented that the community composition may vary considerably in terms of species richness by site within the Dahomey Gap main habitats, whereas the bulk of the communities of both taxa remain the same.

Extensive research has explored land use and land cover change (LULCC) in tropical ecosystems, but more detailed carbon footprint data is essential for defining strategies to enhance carbon sinks. This study assessed LULCC and its associated carbon footprints in different natural ecosystems. It also established forest reference levels (FRL). We used Landsat images for supervised classification and conducted forest inventories in 186 plots that span moist semi-deciduous forest, swamp forest, gallery forest, woodland and savannah areas. Biomass calculations employed allometric models, biomass expansion factors, and root-to-shoot ratios. Except in Lama Forest Reserve, anthropogenic pressures led to the regressive conversion of natural forest areas to savannah, croplands, and fallows. A progressive trend was observed in semi-deciduous forest (3.18 % per year), resulting in a positive LULC carbon footprint (16.06 tCO2eq.yr−1ha−1). 41.94 % of typical swamp forest was lost, releasing -62.89 tCO2eq.yr−1ha−1. Similarly, woodland decreased by -1.48 and -5.89 % per year, according to considered site, with emissions of -12.16 and -21.83 tCO2eq.yr−1ha−1, respectively. FRL followed the gradient of canopy cover of the different vegetation types. The results highlight the need for adequate conservation and management, considering land use and cover specifics, and provide useful baselines for REDD+ activities in countries with similar ecosystems.

Aims: This study aims to: i) differentiate the plant associations in the Biosphere Reserve of Pendjari (BRP), ii) determine the ecological characteristics of their habitats and iii) present distribution maps on different soil types. Study area: The BRP, located in the Sudanian Zone of Benin. Methods: 202 phytosociological relevés were sampled according to the Braun-Blanquet method within the BRP. Ordination was performed using Detrended Correspondence Analysis to evaluate vegetation patterns. Soil parameters were used to characterize the vegetation types. Results: The numerical analysis of 202 plots and 249 plant species showed two major floristic groups that correlated with a moisture gradient: drylands versus wetlands. The dryland group was a mixture of woodland and shrub savanna, the dominant ecosystems of the study area. The wetland group encompassed species primarily from riparian forest, tree savanna and grass savanna on floodplains. Syntaxonomical analysis of the dryland group showed rocky and gravelly soil associations (Burkeo africanae-Detarietum microcarpi) and soils associated with or without fine gravels (Andropogono gayani-Terminalietum avicennioidis, Andropogono gayani-Senegalietum dudgeonii and Terminalietum leiocarpae). Syntaxonomical analysis of the wetland group showed riparian forest associations on sandy-clay soil (Coletum laurifoliae, Borassetum aethiopi and Hyparrhenio glabriusculae-Mitragynetum inermis) and floodplain associations on silt-clay soil (Terminalio macropterae-Mitragynetum inermis, Brachiario jubatae-Terminalietum macropterae, Sorghastro bipennati-Vachellietum hockii). Conclusions: Eleven new associations were identified in this study. If the distribution of plant associations was determined by different soil properties, the soil humidity would be one of the main ecological factors determining the establishment of plant species and thus plant association development. Taxonomic reference: Akoègninou et al. (2006), Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants (APG IV, 2016). Abbreviations: BRP = Biosphere Reserve of Pendjari; CBD = Convention on Biological Diversity; CCA = Constrained Correspondence Analysis; DCA = Detrended Correspondence Analysis; GPS UTM = Global Positioning System Universal Transverse Mercator.

We tackle the potential impact of bushmeat markets (BM) and traditional medicine markets (TMM) on the functional diversity of mammalian communities in southern Benin, West Africa. A hybrid approach combining direct observations, DNA-typing and questionnaires allowed us to identify 94 species-level taxa across 11 mammalian orders, the greatest ever reported numbers for African wildlife markets. TMM sold species of high conservation concern or regulated by international conventions and sourced among all the taxonomic orders and bioclimatic zones of the country. BM were taxonomically and functionally 100% nested within TMM. However, functional richness was high in both markets, impacting nine diet specializations and five ecological functions, which included seed dispersion (frugivores, folivores and omnivores), prey regulation (carnivores and invertivores), browsing (folivores), grazing (omnivores) and fertilization (nectarivores). TMM likely jeopardized the regulatory, structural and production functions of the sourced ecosystems as they sold species with the greatest body weights and generation lengths, and smallest litter sizes, including large herbivores and keystone predators. BM, despite their restricted range, sourced among a non-selective taxonomic and functional spectrum and as such, also represent a significant threat to ecosystem functioning in southern Benin. The functional database that we provide can serve as a starting point to pursue the quantification of functional diversity in African mammals and further investigate the impact of wildlife markets on ecosystem functioning in tropical Africa. Overall, long-term surveys of the two types of wildlife markets are needed to accurately quantify the threat they constitute to mammalian biodiversity and the sustainability of ecosystem services.

Ball pythons are traded as bushmeat, leather and belief-based medicine in West Africa, and specimens are exported in large numbers for the exotic pet trade. Here, we focused on understanding the purpose and socio-economic context of this trade in Benin through interviews with 44 actors involved in the trade of this species. We provided a snapshot of trade dynamics during a period when hunters are not predominantly actively involved in supplying eggs, neonates and gravid females for ranching and export as exotic pets. Our findings revealed that hunters and traders were largely focused on supplying the bushmeat and medicine markets in West Africa during this time. We estimated that the 21 collectors engaged in hunting in our study collectively hunt between 576 and 5,083 ball pythons from the wild each year. Collection rates reported by some suggests that they could earn more than 15,000 USD from ball python sales in bushmeat markets annually. Ball pythons hunted in Benin were mainly sold to local customers as “bushmeat” (53%) or for belief-based uses (39%) (including “fetish”, “medicinal products” and “voodoo”). However, cross-border trade with neighboring countries of Togo, Nigeria, and Ghana (or even further) also occurred. Although profitable for some, the scale of this practice, together with the widely reported decline in ball python populations in Benin, raises concern about the sustainability and long-term economic viability of this type of large-scale commercial wildlife trade in West Africa, especially as it occurs alongside extensive ranching practices to support the exotic pet trade.

Co-management has been widely promoted in protected area management on the premise that it may simultaneously enhance biodiversity conservation outcomes and improve livelihoods of the park-border communities. However, the success of this management approach remains a growing debate raising the question of its effectiveness. To contribute to this debate, we used local community perceptions and secondary ecological data to assess the extent to which co-management has effectively contributed to biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development outcomes in the Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve. Face-to-face individual interviews using a semi-structured questionnaire were used to collect data on the perceptions of co-management from 160 purposively selected heads of households. A desk study was used to collect data on trends in animal populations, animal mortality, and prohibited activities including incidences of poaching for the past 30 years (pre-and post-introduction of co-management). Results showed that local communities have positive perceptions of the conservation work in the Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve. Further, there was an improved people-park relationship and a recovery of animal populations in the reserve after the introduction of co-management. These findings point to the success of co-management in the area. However, misunderstandings over revenue sharing were still a thorny issue, somehow creating mistrust between parties. We concluded that while it may still be early to achieve more demonstrable conservation outcomes, co-management appears to bring hope for effective biodiversity conservation and socio-economic development in the Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve. Participatory evaluation of co-management involving key stakeholders is recommended in the Vwaza Marsh Wildlife Reserve based on the findings of this study and lessons learnt over the years.

Abstract Pangolins are globally threatened by unsustainable hunting for local use and illegal international trade, plus habitat loss. In Benin (West Africa), white‐bellied and giant pangolins have experienced a contraction in their distribution areas and population decline during the last two decades. To better understand the factors underlying declines in these species, we investigated extirpation rates of populations over the last 20 years. Because pangolins are elusive species difficult to monitor by standard methods, the status of populations has been assessed through a local ecological knowledge (LEK) approach. We collected information on persistence or extirpation status of pangolins from 156 localities. A binomial model was built to predict population persistence probability as a function of past and ongoing landscape changes, initial abundance (1998), human pressures, and density of the protected area network. The LEK‐based model was highly accurate (97% correct classification rate) in predicting the presence of white‐bellied pangolin in 52 localities where its presence has been confirmed independently. According to model outputs, persistence probability of pangolins is positively related to distance to main road, initial population abundance, and negatively related to deforestation, shrinkage of favorable habitat, and distance to protected areas. When those factors are controlled for, the white‐bellied pangolin has a higher probability of persistence than the giant pangolin. Even assuming no further habitat change, the distribution area of the white‐bellied pangolin is predicted to keep decreasing against an unavoidable extinction of the giant pangolin in Benin in the next two decades. Besides validating the usefulness of LEK as a population assessment method, this study emphasizes that, despite a demonstrated positive effect of protected areas, the current situation is not sustainable for pangolins and calls for urgent conservation actions to stop or reduce overhunting.

Understanding what shapes the mammal species poaching in protected areas is critical to developing targeted management strategies for reducing poaching. We collected the data for poaching incidents on the GPS coordinates from 2011 to 2017 to map poaching incidents in the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve. Poaching incidents were then related to environmental and anthropogenic variables using regression analyses. The study shows that poaching is more concentrated along the main river in the Pendjari National Park. Only nearest distance to the main river significantly predicted the location of high poaching incidents. These results could be used as the starting point by the park managers when planning the anti-poaching activities.

This research focuses on Kigelia africana in Benin where it is widely used in traditional medicine but receives little attention from researchers. In addition, this species has recently been recorded as threatened in the country. The aim was to gather ethnobotanical knowledge using a printed semi-structured questionnaire to collect data from herbal medicine traders, randomly selected, through a face-to-face discussion. The survey was carried out from January to March 2020. Among 36 questioned herbal traders, 36% of respondents obtained parts of K. africana by purchase in their own markets and by travelling far (3–10 km covered). The same proportion travel very far before buying parts (more than 10 km covered). None mentioned harvesting parts from wild populations. A high proportion of informants (63%) sold fruits and stem bark whereas a relatively low proportion of them (37%) sold fruits, stem bark, and leaves. The stem bark was recorded as most in demand followed by fruits. Respondents mostly confirmed the species scarcity. This species was used to treat 13 diseases and disorders. The stem bark was the most cited in the management of stomach infections and gynecological disorders. Fruits were mainly used in magic rituals and the treatment of stomach infections. Five preparations were recorded whither 54% of traders mentioned bark decoctions and 27% highlighted infusion of fruits in water. Overall, Kigelia africana is an important plant in Beninese ethnomedicine and the harvest and trade of its different parts represent major threats. Therefore, urgent conservation tools and actions are needed.

Abstract Background African pangolins are currently experiencing unprecedented levels of harvesting, feeding both local demands and the illegal international trade. So far, the lack of knowledge on the population genetics of African pangolins has hampered any attempts at assessing their demographic status and tracing their trade at the local scale. We conducted a pioneer study on the genetic tracing of the African pangolin trade in the Dahomey Gap (DG). We sequenced and genotyped 189 white-bellied pangolins from 18 forests and 12 wildlife markets using one mitochondrial fragment and 20 microsatellite loci. Results Tree-based assignment procedure showed that the pangolin trade is endemic to the DG region, as it was strictly fed by the the Dahomey Gap lineage (DGL). DGL populations were characterized by low levels of genetic diversity, an overall absence of equilibrium, important inbreeding levels, and lack of geographic structure. We identified a 92–98% decline in DGL effective population size 200–500 ya—concomitant with major political transformations along the ‘Slave Coast’—leading to contemporaneous estimates being inferior to minimum viable population size (

Social norms drive women to practice unpaid caring activities that constitute an important barrier to their access to paid activities within the labour market in Benin. Assessing how far unpaid caring activities affect their business activities will help to improve the livelihoods of women. A survey was carried out in the district of Ouidah, with 300 households randomly selected to be issued with a questionnaire. Four types of households were identified according to their different characteristics. Payment for domestic work varied from one household to another. Most of the household types entrusted the care of their children to family members. Childcare, eldercare, and other home tasks were assigned to women according to the social norms, with men carrying out the more physically demanding roles (coconut harvesting, moto riding, basket lixiviation, palisade construction, fishing). The time allocated to work by women decreased with the increased coverage of the households' needs and the education level of women in the household. This study provides knowledge that could help decision makers to design appropriate strategies to reduce women's unpaid domestic work and to close the gender gap in the different households in mangrove areas of Ramsar site 1017 in Benin.

Coastal areas are fruitful environments with a complex diversity of ecosystems. These areas are very sensitive and therefore, changes in the region of interest (ROI) require special attention due to the consequences. The changes observed in the coastal zone of Benin, such as: coastal erosion, the decrease of mangrove ecosystems and its consequences, and the pressure on agricultural land, have motivated this study, which aims to assess land use land cover in the coastal zone of Benin in order to better anticipate the phenomena of loss and fragmentation of ecosystems and to provide guidelines for policy-making. To achieve this objective, remote sensing and field surveys were used. Spot and Landsat satellite images of the years 1991–2006 and 2021 have been uploaded to regards. cnes.fr and USGS. Direct field observations and group discussions to determine the driving forces behind the changes were conducted. Supervised classification using the Maximum Likelihood approach of ENVI software was used and QGIS 3.16 to process the data. Significant changes have been observed in the coastal zone our study area over the past thirty years. During the period 1991–2006, palm fields constituted the largest land use with 84786 ha or 28.9% of the total area. This occupation will decrease over time to reach 66773.2 ha in 2006 (22.7% of the total area) and 27406.5 ha or 7.2% of the total area in 2021. Classes such as Mosaic of crop and out of crop, dense forest have experienced the same evolution while the opposite trend is observed in built-up areas. From 11543 ha or 3.9% of the total area in 1991, this class has increased to 25138 ha or 8.7% of the total area in 2006 and 44418.5 ha or 15.1% in 2021. Urbanization and the need for agricultural land have been identified as driving forces behind these changes and Markov chain analysis reveals future regression of coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, dense forest, swamp, and crop ender palm. These outcomes have far-reaching policy direction of environmental sustainability target in Benin coast.

Agroforestry systems are the last refuge habitats for many large old trees. This study assessed the management and the protection of Milicia excelsa (Iroko) trees in agricultural landscape of Dogbo district in southern Benin. A socio-economic survey with 288 respondents combined with an inventory of M. excelsa trees in agricultural lands were carried out. A total of 404 Iroko's trees were geolocated in 10 stands ranging in size from 102 to 1476 ha. The pair correlation function has been used to assess the spatial patterns of Iroko trees. The density of Iroko trees varies moderately from 1.69 ± 0.19 to 0.07 ± 0.02 stems/ha respectively in farmland and landscape with a spatial distribution ranging from gregarious to random - gregarious - random. The diametric structure of Iroko trees presents a bell-shaped appearance with a left asymmetry. The vertical structure shows a bell-like appearance centered on the modal class made up of individuals of height between 14 and 16 m. Timber exploitation (14%), rarefaction of the species and its attribute of sacred tree (98%) are the main motivations for protecting plants in agricultural lands. The medicinal use of the plant parts of Iroko is mainly based on the bark (33%) and leaves (24%). Except the socioeconomic conditions of farmers, the cultural foundations contribute the most to the preservation of M. excelsa in the agricultural lands. Thus, a participatory reforestation program integrating the endogenous values of local populations in the use of agroforestry systems as biological corridors could be successfully implemented. It would allow the preservation of large old trees from the increasing pressure on their populations in the future.

Green spaces contribute to a significant improvement in quality of life and maintain the sustainability of cities. In Benin, despite the political willingness regarding greening, municipalities are experiencing technical issues in finding suitable spaces to achieve this goal. This study should therefore be applicable to many other towns in Benin. It aims at identifying suitable areas for green spaces to integrate landscaping into urban planning in Abomey-Calavi district. Multi-criteria analysis combining GIS and the hierarchical classification approach was performed. Six factors (land use, altitude, slope, distance from main roads, proximity to urban centres and distance from flood zones, water bodies) were combined using the ArcGIS “Spatial Analysis” extension to generate a map of green space suitability. The results show large areas of land, of which 23.27% is very suitable and 26.06% is suitable for landscaping in this municipality. The ranking of the factors revealed that elevation, proximity to road networks, large conurbations and distance from wetlands accounted for 18%, compared with 14% for the other factors regarding the study environment. However, the use of these results must take into account the existing inhabited areas for a good site selection. These outputs provide guidance for decision-makers in choosing suitable sites for green spaces and integrating them into sustainable development.

Abstract Background Pangolins are trafficked in unsustainable volumes to feed both local and global trade networks for their meat and the medicinal properties of their derivatives, including scales. We focus on a West African country (Benin) to assess the medicinal and spiritual values of pangolins among different ethnic groups and identify the cohort of buyers involved in the pangolin trade and related economic values along the chain, notably from local diasporas. Methods We organised 54 focus groups in villages surrounding occurrence habitats of pangolins across Benin and conducted 35 individual interviews with vendors from five major traditional medicine markets (TMMs). Our questionnaire addressed the different uses of pangolins, the commercial value of pangolin items, the categories of clients and the related selling prices. Results Pangolin meat was strictly consumed as food. Scales, head, bones, tongue, blood, heart and xiphisternum were the items used by local communities as part of medicinal (65% of the focus groups) and spiritual (37%) practices. Scales were the most frequently used item (use value index = 1.56). A total of 42 medicinal and spiritual uses, covering 15 International Classification of Diseases (ICD) categories, were recorded among ethnic groups. The ICD and spiritual categories-based analyses of similarity showed a partial overlapping of ethnozoological knowledge across Benin, although knowledge was significantly influenced by ethnicity and geographic location. The pricing of pangolins both varied with the category of stakeholders (local communities vs. stakeholders of TMMs) and clients (local and West African clients vs. Chinese community) and the type of items sold. The Chinese community was reported to only buy pangolins alive, and average selling prices were 3–8 times higher than those to West African clients. Conclusions Our results confirm that pangolins in Africa are valuable and versatile resources for consumption and medicinal / spiritual practices. The pangolin trade in Benin is based on an endogenous and complex network of actors that now appears influenced by the specific, high-valued demand from the Chinese diaspora. Further investigations are required to assess the growing impact of the Chinese demand on the African wildlife trade.

Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) G. Don, Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir, Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C. C. Berg, Prosopis africana (Guill., Perrot. and Rich.) Taub., Afzelia africana Sm. and Khaya senegalensis (Desv.) A. Juss. are the most highly valued indigenous tree species in the agroforestry systems of the Ouémé catchment area. However, information on the population structure of these species is lacking, thus limiting the development of their sustainable conservation, utilization and restoration strategies. This study addressed this gap. It assessed the population structures and regeneration status of the six species from Don, Tan-Houègbo, Atchabita, Bétékoukou, Glazoué, Tchaorou, Zagnanado, Tévèdji, Sinaou and Bétérou along the catchment. Data were collected from 78 permanent rectangular plots (50 × 30 m) randomly installed within 10 provenances. Dendrometric data including diameter at breast height (dbh) of adult trees (dbh ≥ 10 cm), collar diameter, total height of seedlings and saplings, number of individuals per species according to adult, sapling and seedling were recorded. The population structure was described using ecological and dendrometric parameters (relative frequency, importance value index (IVI), mean densities, basal area, mean height), and diameter size-class distributions. Seedling:sapling and sapling:adult ratios were also computed and analyzed for determining regeneration patterns. Based on IVI, Parkia biglobosa (95.85%) and Khaya senegalensis (65.92%) were the most represented species in the catchment area. The analysis of variances showed that dendrometric parameters of the six species varied significantly between provenances. Seedling:sapling and sapling:adult ratios were

Health risks associated to the use of tropical wildlife have so far been envisioned through the lens of zoonotic pathogens spread by the bushmeat trade, putting aside the equally vibrant network of traditional medicine markets (TMMs). We collected information on the preservative techniques used for animal body parts from TMMs in Benin through a semi-structured questionnaire addressed to 45 sellers. We show that a recent shift from traditional preservative techniques using harmless treatments towards modern techniques –involving the recurrent use of hazardous chemicals (such as Sniper)– is likely to pose a serious health risk to practitioners and consumers of animal parts from TMMs in Benin. We conclude that the non-regulation of the TMM activities represents a critical risk to both biodiversity conservation and human health in western Africa.

The African baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) is a multipurpose orphan tree species of the semi-arid and sub-humid Sub-Saharan Africa where it plays an important role in rural livelihoods. Its wide distribution and dense nutrition properties make it an important species for food and nutrition security in Africa. However, despite the increasing interest in the species over the past two decades, the full potential of baobab remains underexploited. This review highlights strides made over the past 20 years (2001–2020) towards harnessing and unlocking the potential values of baobab in Benin, West Africa, to contribute to food and nutrition security. Challenges and threats are identified, and next steps suggested to guide research and development initiatives for orphan tree fruit species like baobab to address hunger and malnutrition in Africa.

The vegetation cover of the Ouémé Delta constitutes a biodiversity hotspot for the wetlands in southern Benin. However, the overexploitation of natural resources in addition to the intensification of agricultural practices led to the degradation of the natural ecosystems in this region. The present work aims to reconstruct, using remote sensing, the spatial dynamics of land use in the Ouémé Delta in order to assess the recent changes and predict the trends in its vegetation cover. The methodology was based on remote sensing and GIS techniques. Altogether, this process helped us carry out the classification of Landsat images for a period of 30 years (stating year 1990, 2005, and 2020) via the Envi software. The spatial statistics resulting from this processing were combined using ArcGIS software to establish the transition matrices in order to monitor the conversion rates of the land cover classes obtained. Then, the prediction of the plant landscape by the year 2035 was performed using the “Land Change Modeler” extension available under IDRISI. The results showed seven (07) classes of occupation and land use. There were agglomerations, mosaics of fields and fallow land, water bodies, dense forests, gallery forests, swamp forests, and shrubby wooded savannahs. The observation of the vegetation cover over the period of 15 years from 1990 to 2005 showed a decrease from 71.55% to 63.42% in the surface area of the Ouémé Delta. A similar trend was noticed from 2005 to 2020 when it reached 55.19%, entailing a loss of 16.37% of the surface area of natural habitats in 30 years. The two drivers of such changes are the fertility of alluvial soils for agriculture along and urbanization. The predictive modeling developed for 2035 reveals a slight increase in the area of dense forests and shrubby wooded savannas, contrary to the lack of significant decrease in the area of gallery forests and swamp forests. This is key information that is expected to be useful to both policy and decision makers involved in the sustainable management and conservation of natural resources in the study area.

Little is known about folk perception of pearl millet livestock fodder status across the Niger republic. Thus, this work assesses farmers' perceptions of the main pearl millet accessions fodder performance features in Niger. To that end, we: (i) Identify farmers' criteria for choosing pearl millet accessions fodder-profile, (ii) Analyze the farmer preferences for pearl millet accessions adapted to local cropping systems, and (iii) Analyze current cropping systems. Data have been derived from semi-structured surveys based on individual and focus group interviews of 508 stakeholders which were sampled from seven major ethnic groups across the eight country regions. Generated database was submitted to multivariate analysis in XLSTAT software. As results, the farmers' perception of a fodder profile may combine long and wide leaves, abundant tillers, slender stems, coupled to a large biomass and a plant capacity to regrow after grazing or mowing. Height accessions were agro-ecologically and socio-culturally chosen and valued by Farmers across the country, i.e. Haïni Kirey at Tillabéry, Niamey and Dosso, HKP and Guerguéra at Tahoua, Ankoutess at Agadez, Goudiss and Môro at Diffa, Batoukouché at Zinder, and HKP and Zongo at Maradi. Distinctive producers’ groups occur despite wider similarities in crop management practices. The prominent cropping system associated pearl millet to cowpea or groundnut. Therefore, identifying, characterizing or improving pearl millet accessions with a grain or fodder profile requires significant involvement of the farmers across Niger.

Understanding the niche and habitat requirements of useful and threatened species, their shifts under climate change and how well protected areas (PAs) preserve these habitats is relevant for guiding sustainable management actions. Here we assessed the ecological factors underlying the distribution of two multipurpose and threatened species, Mimusops andongensis and M. kummel, in Benin, and potential changes in the suitable habitats covered by PAs, under climate change scenarios. Fifty seven occurrence points were collected for M. andongensis and 81 for M. kummel. Associations with 19 bioclimatic (from WorldClim database) and six soil variables (from World Soil Information website) were analyzed using Principal Components Analysis, niche modelling and gap analysis. M. andongensis occurrence is associated with high soil clay, silt, organic carbon and cation exchange capacity. Contrastingly, M. kummel occurrence is linked to high sand content and prolonged water holding capacity. Climatically, M. andongensis occurrence is positively related to mean annual temperature, while M. kummel occurrence is influenced by the seasonality of precipitation and precipitation of the wettest period. Predictions showed affinity of suitable areas with water lines, suggesting that components of soil texture and chemical properties should be considered during modelling. For M. andongensis suitable areas are confined to the Guineo-Congolian zone, while for M. kummel they are mostly located in the Guineo-Sudanian zone and absent from the driest part of the Sudanian zone. Under climate change, moderately to highly suitable areas (probability of occurrence of species>20%) covered by PAs will decrease in the case of M. andongensis, but remain stable for M. kummel. In Benin, PAs are under threat from exploitation and uncontrolled bushfires, which may also affect populations of the two species. Consequently, additional actions are required, including the monitoring of species populations and the extent of different pressures, and the regularization of access to PAs. Populations of these species outside PAs should also be given consideration because of their very limited abundance.

The ethnobotanical utilization of five neglected herbaceous species, Argemone mexicana L., Heliotropium indicum L., Kedrostis foetidissima (Jacq.) Cogn., Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth and Schrankia leptocarpa DC. was investigated in Southern Benin to determine the ethnomedicinal and magic knowledge on them. Thirty-six herbal medicine traders were surveyed in six different markets in three districts. Four ethnobotanical indices were used. All informants traded A. mexicana and the majority traded H. indicum, K. foetidissima, and P. pellucida. Purchases in the traders’ own markets was the single most important source of H. indicum, A. mexicana and P. pellucida. A. mexicana was the most demanded by customers. Traders reported the scarcity of A. mexicana and H. indicum and the availability of S. leptocarpa, K. foetidissima and P. pellucida. H. indicum was mainly used to treat hypertension and fever. Similarly, S. leptocarpa was mostly mentioned in the treatment of hypertension and to facilitate childbirth. K. foetidissima mainly served religious and animist purposes. Similarly, P. pellucida was reported as being mainly used to implant a vodun, a traditional religion in West Africa. A. mexicana served to treat babies just after the umbilical cord fall as well as jaundice. S. leptocarpa and P. pellucida exhibited the highest Use Value (UV), and there was a very low similarity between study species in terms of uses. The majority of traders did not plant the study species, although they serve to treat various social conditions. We suggest a better management of H. indicum and S. leptocarpa through collection for trading and medicinal utilization while the planting is required for A. mexicana and P. pellucida because of their scarcity. K. foetidissima should be preserved and used as medicine wherever it occurs.

Background. Ethnobotanical knowledge on four herbaceous species, Acmella uliginosa (Sw.) Cass., Momordica charantia L., Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn., and Scoparia dulcis L., in Benin was investigated. Methods. Herbal medicine traders in six different markets were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. The linear regression test was performed to check for the influence of respondent’s age on ethnobotanical uses they hold. Relative frequency citation, fidelity level, use value, and Rahman similarity index were calculated to assess the diversity of medico-magic knowledge. The Informant Consensus Factor is not applicable in this study since we are dealing neither with the diversity of medicinal plants used by a community of people nor with a great number of plant species used for medicinal purposes, nor the diversity of plant species used in the treatment of a specific or group of ailments. Results. The respondent's age did not influence the ethnobotanical uses they hold on the species. All thirty-six informants surveyed traded Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn., Momordica charantia L., and Scoparia dulcis L., and the majority traded Acmella uliginosa (Sw.) Cass. The respondent's age does not influence the diversity of ethnobotanical uses they hold on the study species. Purchase in traders’ own markets was the predominant source of Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn., Momordica charantia L., and Scoparia dulcis L. while Acmella uliginosa (Sw.) Cass. was mostly purchased in other more distant markets. A noticeable proportion of traders also collect Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. and Momordica charantia L. from wild populations. Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. was the species most demanded by customers followed by Momordica charantia L. Traders confirmed the scarcity of all species in recent years and climate change and destruction of natural habitats for logging were the most cited causes. The entire plant of Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. was used mainly to treat malaria, diabetes, and constipation, and decoction with oral administration was the most frequent preparation for malaria treatment. To treat diabetes, informants mixed Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. with Momordica charantia L. used as a decoction with oral administration. Momordica charantia L. was also used to treat measles and chicken pox. Acmella uliginosa (Sw.) Cass. and Scoparia dulcis L. were mostly used for their spiritual use for luck, predominantly by chewing fresh leaves or flowers, and by bathing with the ground plant mixed with soap, respectively. Overall, Momordica charantia L. had the greatest use value followed by Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. The majority of traders do not plant the species. Conclusions. The harvesting and trade of the species threaten their natural populations and urgent tools, including in situ and ex situ conservation, are needed to ensure their long-term sustainable exploitation.

Large old trees (LOTs) are emblematic elements of the cultural landscape and can live for hundreds of years. They represent an intermediate aspect of cultural heritage, linking spirits and humans. They can also provide a range of ecosystem services. In spite of their importance, declining numbers have been reported. This study examined the diversity of LOTs and the impact of anthropogenic threats on their preservation in three districts of southern Benin: Ketou and Abomey, which represent historical districts with royal courts, and Lokossa, which does not have a tradition as a dynastic seat. Semi-structured interviews focused on ethnobotanical aspects and storytelling were conducted with a total of 150 community leaders and traditional practitioners; these were coupled with an inventory of LOTs to demonstrate their importance in maintaining the heritage and providing ecosystem services in cultural landscapes. Diversity, cultural importance, and ethnobotanical indices were calculated to compare positive and negative attitudes towards LOTs by the local people of the study areas. A total of 270 LOT individuals belonging to 14 species were recorded. The most common species was Adansonia digitata (70 individuals), followed by Milicia excelsa (47 individuals), Ceiba pentandra (37 individuals), and Blighia sapida (25 individuals). Sacred forests and the royal palaces (ten for Abomey and three for Kétou), which are protected by a traditional veto, had the highest number of LOTs (145 individuals) belonging to nine species. Details of 79 specific uses were documented for each plant part of LOTs. The most frequently reported were related to medicinal (80.64%), cultic (16.65%), and craft uses (2.6%). Based on a standard area of 100 km2, mean Shannon diversity (H’) and evenness (J) were lower in the cultural landscape of Ketou (H′ = 0.26 ± 0.42; J = 0.23 ± 0.37) compared to Lokossa (H′ = 0.27 ± 0.32; J = 0.21 ± 0.24) and Abomey (H′ = 0.42 ± 0.37; J = 0.35 ± 0.31). The threat patterns suggest that, irrespective of the species involved, certain determining factors (urbanization (35%), the timber trade (18%), and decisions made during the Marxist–Leninist revolution in Benin in 1972 (11%)) have affected and continue to affect LOT abundance and diversity. For better management of LOTs, there is a need to promote decision-making strategies that better align human cultural values and ecological objectives.

Although pangolins are considered to be one of the most trafficked wild mammals in the world, their conservation status remains uncertain through most of their ranges, and notably in western Africa. Using local ecological knowledge in combination with direct occurrence evidence, we assessed the distribution and abundance of the white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) and the giant pangolin (Smutsia gigantea) in Benin over the last two decades (1998–2018). We organised focus groups with local hunters in 312 villages within sampling units of 25 km × 25 km covering the whole country. Participatory maps of past and current geographic ranges of pangolins combined with direct evidence (96 collected scales) suggested that the white-bellied pangolin had a wide distribution and reached higher latitudes than previously known, whereas the giant pangolin could be restricted to a single forest and has been absent from the northern part of the country over at least the last two decades. Local hunters perceived a significant decline of the white-bellied pangolin (range contraction = 31% in 20 years) and almost unanimously an extirpation of the giant pangolin (93%), the latter being restricted to the Alibori forest reserve (northern Benin). Protected areas were identified as the main potential occurrence zones for pangolins: 77 and 100% of the potential geographic ranges of the white-bellied and the giant pangolins, respectively, overlapped partially or totally with the protected area network of Benin. Using a generalized linear model, we showed that the probability of reporting recent observations of the white-bellied pangolin was significantly higher for villages near protected areas and distant from main roads. The forests perceived as having sustainable populations of white-bellied pangolins were the Lama Forest reserve (southern Benin) and the complex comprising Monts Kouffé - Wari Maro - Ouémé supérieur (central Benin), a view that was supported by the great number of direct occurrence evidence collected in those areas. Overall, our study highlights an important geographic range contraction of the white-bellied pangolin and a possible entire extirpation of the giant pangolin over the last two decades in Benin.

Understanding factors limiting rare species is a major concern in conservation ecology. Little is known about how large mammalian bovid species from West Africa partition diet resources, and to what extent the rare topi antelope and other sympatric bulk grazers can cope with this co-existing system. Using tooth collagen stable isotope data, we studied an assemblage of three sympatric grazers (topi, hartebeest and roan) with different population density. Our findings showed numerous patterns in resource partitioning amongst the three sympatric species studied, suggesting that the species used dietary resources in contrasting ways. There were significant differences in both δ13C and δ15N signatures among topi, hartebeest and roan. A very narrow range could be noticed for the rare topi antelope (−6.05‰ to −7.63‰) for δ13C values and no significant differences at individual scale. The more abundant species such as hartebeest and roan were found to use a high proportion of the isotopic niche space of topi (more than 70%), while topi used only a narrow range of hartebeest and roan niche space (less than 10%). Our study provides the first evidence for the resource partitioning amongst high and low density ungulates in West African savanna. Expansion of the niche noted in the roan and hartebeest is much more related to the strong variation of the niche at the individual level. Topi, as subordinate species narrow their niche instead of expanding the dietary niche as expected. Our findings regarding the absence of dietary niche flexibility observed in the topi despite it being considered as subordinate species were discussed in being one of the factor limiting its population recovery in West African grazer assemblages.

Abstract Background Understanding the relationship between great apes and their habitat is essential for the development of successful conservation strategies. The chimpanzee Pan troglodytes ellioti is endemic to Nigeria and Cameroon, and occupies an ecologically diverse range of habitats from forests to forest-savannah mosaic in Mbam-Djerem National Park (MDNP) in Cameroon. The habitat variation in chimpanzees is poorly understood in MDNP which provides an excellent opportunity to assess ecological factors that shape the abundance and distribution patterns of P. t. ellioti over a small geographic scale. Results We counted 249 nests along 132 km of transects in total. Of these, 119 nests along 68 km occurred in dense forest and 130 nests along 64 km in forest-savannah mosaic. Chimpanzee density was 0.88 [95% CI (0.55–1.41)] individuals/km2 in the dense forest and 0.59 [95% CI (0.19–1.76)] in the forest-savannah mosaic. Nest abundance varied with vegetation type and was higher in areas with dense canopy cover, steeper slopes and relatively higher altitudes. Conclusions Our estimates of chimpanzee densities were lower than reported in other studied populations in the range of the Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee. However, we found that habitat features, slope and altitude likely play a role in shaping patterns of chimpanzee nesting ecology. Further studies need to be focused on nest decay rates and phenology of useful plants in order to model chimpanzee abundance and distribution in Mbam-Djerem National Park.

Background and Aim: Rhipicephalus microplus (Rm) is one of the most problematic livestock tick species in the world. Its rapid propagation and resistance to acaricides make it control difficult in the sub-region and Benin particularly. The aim of this work was to check its presence in wildlife and to confirm the possible role of reservoir wildlife may play in the propagation of the parasite. This will help to design more efficient control strategy. Materials and Methods: This study was conducted from February to March 2017 in the National Parks of Benin (Pendjari and W Park) and wildfowl's assembly and selling point in Benin. Ticks were manually picked with forceps from each animal after slaughtering by hunters then stored in 70° ethanol. Collected ticks were counted and identified in the laboratory using the identification key as described by Walker. Results: Overall, seven species of ticks (Amblyomma variegatum, Boophilus decoloratus, Rm, Boophilus spp., Hyalomma spp., Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Rhipicephalus spp.) were identified on nine wild animal species sampled (Cane rat, wildcat, Hare, Doe, Cricetoma, Buffalo, Buffon Cobe, and Bushbuck and Warthog). The average number of ticks varies from 3 to 6 between animal species, 3 to 7 between localities visited, and 2 to 5 between tick species. However, these differences are statistically significant only for localities. Considering tick species and animal species, the parasite load of Rm and Rhipicephalus spp. is higher; the buffalo being more infested. The analysis of deviance reveals that the abundance of ticks observed depends only on the observed localities (p>0.05). However, the interactions between animal species and localities on the one hand and between animal and tick species on the other hand, although not significant, have influenced the abundance of ticks as they reduce the residual deviance after their inclusion in the model. Conclusion: This study reported the presence of Rm in wildlife of Benin and confirmed its role in the maintenance and spread of the parasites. It is, therefore, an important risk factor that we must not neglect in the epidemiological surveillance and ticks control strategies in the West African sub-region and particularly in Benin.

Abstract Background Atakora mountains in Benin are a unique but fragile ecosystem, harboring many endemic plant species. The ecosystem is undergoing degradation, and the woody vegetation is dramatically declining due to high anthropogenic actions and recurrent drought. This study aimed to (i) assess the diversity of threatened woody species and (ii) identify their potential substitutes in the three regions of the Atakora mountains namely East Atakora, Central Atakora, and West Atakora. Methods The data were collected during expeditions on surveyed localities through semi-structured individual interviews. Free-listing was used to record threatened woody species and which were important and why. Alpha-diversity indices were used to assess diversity of threatened and important threatened woody species. A correspondence analysis was used to determine the reason supporting their importance. Differences in species composition were assessed using analysis of similarities. A number of potential substitutes were compared among species using generalized linear models. Results A total of 117 woody species (37 families and 92 genera) were identified. The most prominent families were Fabaceae (19.66%), Combretaceae (12.82%), and Moraceae (10.26%), and the richest genera were Ficus (10 species), Combretum (6), and Terminalia (5). Most threatened species differed across regions (East Atakora, Central Atakora, and West Atakora) and included Afzelia africana, Anogeissus leiocarpa, Borassus aethiopum, Diospyros mespiliformis, Khaya senegalensis, Milicia excelsa, and Pterocarpus erinaceus. Most socio-economically important species (K. senegalensis, Parkia biglobosa, Vitellaria paradoxa, and V. doniana) were used mainly for food, timber, and fuelwood purposes. Old and adult people, and Dendi and Fulfulde sociolinguistic groups had greater knowledge of threatened woody plant species. High intercultural differentiations in species composition were detected between Bariba-Berba and Bariba-Natimba. Knowledge of substitutes also differed across regions with P. erinaceus, Isoberlinia spp., and A. africana being the most cited substitutes. Conclusion Basic data was provided here to inform decision and guide efficient management of woody resources. There was evidence that immediate conservation measures are required for some high economic value woody taxa which were critically threatened. Ex-situ conservation of these species while promoting their integration into agroforestry-based systems were recommended. Besides, community-based management programs and community-led initiatives involving knowledgeable people from different horizons will lead to a long-lasting conservation of these threatened resources.

Este trabalho examina o valor econômico dos produtos florestais não madeireiros e sua contribuição para a renda da população que reside na Reserva Transnacional W da Biosfera em Benim. No estudo, 148 pessoas de dois grupos étnicos foram entrevistadas. Os dados foram analisados com base no método de estimativa indireta de custo de oportunidade e margem bruta. Os resultados mostram que a população local colhe cinco tipos de produtos: lenha (não comercializado) e quatro produtos comercializados (Vitellaria paradoxa, C.F.Gaertn, sementes e polpa de Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don e folhas de Adansonia digitata L.). A média da contribuição dos produtos comercializados dentre os entrevistados foi estimada em XOF 255,484 ($US 510.968) (desvio padrão: XOF 37,109), representando cerca de 11,46% da renda anual dos domicílios. Grupos de idade e aspectos sociolinguísticos foram os maiores determinantes da exploração de produtos florestais não madeireiros. Tendo em vista o valor desses produtos para as comunidades, deve-se priorizar a domesticação e conservação as plantas identificadas neste estudo.

Perennial plants are the main pollen and nectar sources for bees in the tropical areas where most of the annual flora are burned in dry seasons. Therefore perennial plants constitute the most reliable bio materials for determining and evaluating the beekeeping regions of the Republic of Benin. A silvo-melliferous region (S-MR) is a geographical area characterised by a particular set of homogenous melliferous plants that can produce timber. Using both the prevailing climatic and the agro-ecological conditions six S-MRs could be identified, i.e. the South region, the Common Central region, the Central West region, the Central North region, the Middle North region and the Extreme North region. At the country level, the melliferous plants were dominated by Vitellaria paradoxa which is common to all regions. The most diversified family was the Caesalpiniaceae (12 species) followed by the Combretaceae (10 species) and Combretum being the richest genus. The effect of dominance is particularly high in the South region where Elaeis guineensis alone represented 72.6% of the tree density and 140% of the total plant importance. The total melliferous plant density varied from 99.3 plants ha^(−1) in the Common Central region to 178.0 plants ha^(−1) in the Central West region. On the basis of nectar and pollen source, the best region for beekeeping is the CentralWest region with 46.7% of nectar producing trees, 9.4% of pollen producing trees and 40.6% of plants that issue both, this in opposition to the South region which was characterised by an unbalanced distribution of melliferous trees.

Traditional yam-based cropping systems (shifting cultivation, slash-and-burn, and short fallow) often result in deforestation and soil nutrient depletion. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of yam-based systems with herbaceous legumes on dry matter (DM) production (tubers, shoots), nutrients removed and recycled, and the soil fertility changes. We compared smallholders’ traditional systems (1-year fallow of Andropogon gayanus-yam rotation, maize-yam rotation) with yam-based systems integrated herbaceous legumes (Aeschynomene histrix/maize intercropping-yam rotation, Mucuna pruriens/maize intercropping-yam rotation). The experiment was conducted during the 2002 and 2004 cropping seasons with 32 farmers, eight in each site. For each of them, a randomized complete block design with four treatments and four replicates was carried out using a partial nested model with five factors: Year, Replicate, Farmer, Site, and Treatment. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the general linear model (GLM) procedure was applied to the dry matter (DM) production (tubers, shoots), nutrient contribution to the systems, and soil properties at depths 0–10 and 10–20 cm. DM removed and recycled, total N, P, and K recycled or removed, and soil chemical properties (SOM, N, P, K, and pH water) were significantly improved on yam-based systems with legumes in comparison with traditional systems.

The Biosphere Reserve of Pendjari is an example of best management practice of protected areas in West Africa with typical Sudanian savanna vegetation. It is part of the vast and transboundary protected areas of W, Pendjari and Arly National Parks of Benin, Burkina Faso and Niger. This work provides an overview of the flora of the reserve by means of a thorough botanical inventory. The plant species composition is typical of Sudanian savanna. We recorded 684 plant species, which were distributed among 366 genera and 89 families. The two most species-rich families were Fabaceae (115) and Poaceae (112). The most important life forms were phanerophytes and therophytes. The chorological spectrum was dominated by Sudanian species. With Ipomoea beninensis Akoègninou, Lisowski and Sinsin, Thunbergia atacorensis Akoègninou and Lisowski and Cissus kouandeensis A.Chev., three endemic species of Benin were recorded, demonstrating the importance of the reserve for plant conservation.

The present study occurred in the three climatic zones of Benin (6�25 - 12� N) and aimed at investigating the level of morphometric and genetic variation and spatial genetic structure within and between threatened baobab populations. A total of 137 individuals from six populations were analysed using morphometric data as well as molecular marker data generated with the AFLP technique. Five primer pairs resulted in a total of 217 scored bands with 78.34% of them being polymorphic. A two-level AMOVA revealed 82.37% of the total variation within populations and 17.63% among populations (P

Le colobe vert olive (Procolobus verus), le plus petit de tous les colobes, est peu documenté au Bénin. De 2008 à 2010, des investigations ont été menées dans le but de déterminer la distribution actuelle de ce singe au Bénin ainsi que les formes et la gravité des menaces pesant sur l'espèce. Pour y parvenir, des enquêtes ont été menées auprès des populations riveraines de 88 villages et de vendeurs de parties et produits d'animaux. Par ailleurs, des prospections ont été menées dans 16 forêts. Les résultats indiquent que le colobe vert olive n'est pas aussi rare qu'on le pensait : sa présence a été confirmée sur des sites où elle n'était pas confirmée auparavant. Son aire d'occurrence actuelle s'étend du sud au nord du Bénin entre 6°30 et 9°45 latitude nord et couvre une superficie de 25 403 km2. Les formes de pression qui pèsent sur la survie du colobe vert olive au Bénin sont les perturbations diverses sur les habitats créées par les activités humaines notamment la chasse de subsistance et l'agriculture extensive. Au regard de ces menaces et du fait du manque de protection du colobe vert olive, une priorité doit être accordée à la conservation de l'espèce.

Lion populations have undergone a severe decline in West Africa. As baseline for conservation management, we assessed the group structure of lions in the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve in Benin. This reserve, composed of one National Park and two Hunting Zones, is part of the WAP transboundary complex of protected areas. Overall mean group size was 2.6±1.7 individuals (n = 296), it was significantly higher in the National Park (2.7±1.7, n = 168) than in the Hunting Zones (2.2±1.5, n = 128). Overall adult sex ratio was even, but significantly biased towards females (0.67) in the National Park and towards males (1.67) in the Hunting Zones. Our results suggest that the Pendjari lion population is affected by perturbations, such as trophy hunting.

Medicinal plants play an important role in human livelihoods. However, the harvest of different organs may be destructive. Sarcocephalus latifolius is a species whose roots are harvested for medicinal purposes. This study was carried out to assess the root characteristics, biomass yield and morphological variations within different habitats of southern Benin. Forty-eight S. latifolius individual plants were randomly selected in three localities, representing four habitats for the species. Information collected was related to height, basal diameter, diameter at breast height, number, depth of insertion and the length and the diameter of the roots. Observations were also made on organ characteristics to identify morphologic variation. The study showed that the optimum development of the root system is established in fallow ground and savannas. The species presents two morphotypes at the stem and root levels. Root biomass varied according to the developmental stage and habitat. A model of root biomass estimation was established and can be used to determine the root biomass within habitats. Across habitat, the number of roots is the major determinant for root biomass yield. Therefore, harvest should take into consideration habitat and the developmental stage according to the use type.

Monts Kouffe's region concerns here Monts Kouffe's forest reserve and its south suburb. In Benin, Monts Kouffe forest reserve undergoes anthropic pressures which are galloping population growth, a shifting cultivation, anarchy meadow and poaching, unfair forestry woods using, forested ecosystems' dysfunction and loss of biodiversity. The aim of this study is to characterize Monts Kouffe forest reserve and periphery’s dense forests islands in order to present their spatio-temporal dynamic. The adopted methodology is based on Remote Sensing, Cartography and Landscape Ecology techniques. From 1986 Landsat TM and 2006 Landsat ETM+ images for 30 m spatial resolution, these allowed the computation of spatial indexes as number of spots (dense forests islands), total area of spots, dominance, average area, spots areas’ diversity and, shape index.

National political context is widely understood to be an important factor shaping the ecological and socio-economic impacts of protected areas (PAs) and other conservation interventions. Despite broad recognition that national political context matters, however, there is little systematic understanding about how and why it matters, particularly in the context of PAs. This article seeks to advance empirical and theoretical understanding of the influence of national political context on the impacts of conservation interventions through study of an international aid project in a large transboundary PA in West Africa. It uses multilevel regression analysis to analyze the variable effects of changes in enforcement—a central mechanism through which the Protected Ecosystems in Sudano-Sahelian Africa project sought to achieve its objectives—in the W National Parks (WNP) of Benin and Niger. We find that differences in national political context relating to governance quality and extent of democratic decentralization moderated the social-ecological effects of enforcement. Increasing enforcement levels in Benin’s WNP were associated with significant increases in mammal species abundance while having little average effect on the incomes of households around the Park. By contrast, greater levels of enforcement in Niger’s WNP were associated with sharply decreasing income levels among Park neighbors but did not have a statistically significant effect on wildlife populations. These results highlight the importance of national political context to the outcomes of aid-funded conservation efforts. They suggest that state-led PA enforcement will have more positive social-ecological impacts in better-governed, more decentralized countries and that conservation policy centered on PAs should therefore devote greater attention to engagement with higher levels of governance.