Search

Observations from 1974-2016 of Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) on the archipelago that comprises Slate Islands Provincial Park allowed us to infer direct and indirect effects of the arrival of Wolf (Canis lupus) pairs in winters of 1993-94 and 2003-04. Wolves created conditions that led to the near demise of Caribou from the islands, including some, but not all, behavioural changes in Caribou consistent with avoiding predators. Caribou on SIPP did not appear to return to calving locations near shoreline areas, nor use them to escape from Wolves by entering water. Shorelines and locations of Patterson Island near a Wolf-occupied Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) den were the most common Caribou kill locations. Wolves also functionally shifted the ecosystem in Slate Islands Provincial Park via direct and indirect effects on North American Beavers (Castor canadensis), Red Foxes and Snowshoe Hares (Lepus americanus).

We studied the effect of managing group size in domesticated elk in the context of social foraging theory, and toward recommendations for livestock well-being and efficient use of common pastures. We compared foraging in adult female elk presented with feeding trays of alfalfa pellets mixed with segments of plastic tube. As the ratio of alfalfa pellets to plastic tubes decreases, there is a point called the giving-up density (GUD), measured as the weight of remaining food, at which a foraging elk stops searching for pellets. We compared individual scanning rates, or vigilance, as well as GUDs, over trials in repeated measures that included single elk and elk in groups of two, three, four, five, seven, 10, 13 and 17. We also compared a group of four and a group of seven elk with and without their calves, and groups with and without a dominant individual, defined as a female that moved to a feeding tray and resulted in its being abandoned by another female. We found an exponential decline in GUDs with increasing group size (F1,117 = 5.14, P = 0.02) regardless of presence of calves and consistent with the ‘group size effect,’ which predicts lower individual vigilance with a greater number in a group, a welfare benefit of social foraging. Among 10 adults tracked as focal animals through at least three trials, all but one elk expressed lower GUDs in larger groups, leading to 14% less scanning with each additional elk individual in a group (F1,117 = 8.42, R2 = (118 repeated measures) = 0.60, P

Intensive forest management activities that maximize economic gains could have a negative impact on the ecosystems and generate environmental conflicts, which may in turn translate to poor delivery of ecosystems services. Although plant diversity is positively associated with multiple ecosystem functions, it remains unclear how economic gains influence plant diversity across vegetation strata. We analyzed the relationships between economic gains, assessed as profit, and plant species richness following forest management alternatives (managing rotation age and overstorey composition) for the boreal forests of Canada. We found a hump-shaped relationship between total plant richness and profit, with total plant richness increasing initially, reaching a peak, and then declining with increasing profits. The relationship between profit and plant diversity differed among vegetation strata. Understorey plant richness followed similar trends to total plant richness, but overstorey tree richness increased linearly. The results of path analysis presented management alternatives as major drivers determining profit and plant diversity across vegetation strata. Our analysis indicated that maximum profit ($5000/ha) could lead to 20% loss of total plant species richness. Among the alternatives we compared, we conclude that managing for mixedwood with approximately a rotation of 100 years is an optimal compromise between economic and plant diversity objectives.

Timber production and economic gain are important forestry objectives. Boreal forests have long been an important contributor to commodity products. However, in recent decades, commercial production in the boreal forest industry is undergoing a fundamental shift from traditional wood products to multiple value-added products including residues for bioenergy production. In order to help decision makers select economically optimal forest management alternatives, we conducted an empirical study, the first of its kind, to explore the impact of varying silvicultural intensities, forest compositions, rotation ages, and harvest methods on profits in a portion of boreal forest in Northwestern Ontario. We found that silvicultural intensity, forest composition, rotation age, and harvest method significantly affected profit. The profit was on average the highest from coniferous stands, followed by mixedwood and broadleaved compositions. The profits in mixedwood stands increased continuously with rotation age using both Full-Tree to Roadside Tree-Length-to-Mill harvesting method (FT-TL) and Full-Tree to Roadside Shortwood-to-Mill method (FT-SW), and increased with rotation age but decreased at late-succession stage using Cut-to-Length method (CTL). The profits were on average higher using FT-TL than using FT-SW and CTL. The maximum profit ($3305/ha) was solved for low silvicultural intensity (conifer – conifer), with a rotation age of 100 years, using the FT-TL harvest method. This analysis provides an example of finding economically optimal forest management solutions.

Las caracteristicas de los suelos de los bosques humedos tropicales tanto maduros como secundarios son similares en coloracion, textura y densidad aparente. En las zonas tropicales calido-humedas de Ecuador Cecropia es un arbol tipico pionero en bosques secundarios, que se considera importante para la recuperacion de suelos en tierras degradadas. Tiene un bajo requerimiento de nutrientes y produce una gran cantidad de hojarasca que se degrada lentamente. En este estudio se compara el contenido nutrimental del suelo bajo Cecropia en bosques secundarios y maduros en Ecuador y no se duros, las hojas de Cecropia tuvieron un area especifica mas alta y niveles de nitrogeno mas bajos, lo que coincide con la teoria de la economia de la hoja. La variabilidad en las propiedades nutritivas del suelo fue mayor entre las tres estaciones de investigacion que entre las dos edades forestales. ABSTRACT - NUTRIENT CONTENT OF SOIL AND LEAF LITTER OF THE PIONEER TREE Cecropia IN MATURE AND SECONDARY FORESTS OF THE WET TROPICAL ZONE OF ECUADOR The soil characteristics of mature and secondary tropical rainforests are similar in color, texture, and bulk density. Cecropia a pioneer tree in early secondary forest typical of the warm-humid tropics in Ecuador, is considered important to the recovery of soil on degraded lands. It has a low nutrient requirement and produces a large amount of leaf litter that degrades slowly. This study compares soils under Cecropia in abandoned pasture and mature forest in Ecuador. No significant nutritive differences in soils or in Cecropia leaf litter were found between secondary and mature forest. Cecropia leaves have higher specific area and lower nitrogen levels in mature forest, consistent with theory on leaf economics. Variability in soil nutrition among three research stations was higher than between the two forest ages.

The Amazon basin is widely recognized for its high biological and cultural diversity, enabling the provision of many ecosystem services. This study explores social perceptions of some of the features of biodiversity and ecosystem services in a tropical forest in Sangay Parish, Ecuador. Following a survey of residents, we identified three groups whose perceptions vary in relation to socioeconomic characteristics, cultural backgrounds, lifestyles, and the benefits obtained from the Sangay forest. Mestizo professionals, with a better socioeconomic situation, identify more regulation and cultural services; Shuar farmers have a comprehensive knowledge of biodiversity features and rely on provisioning services; and Shuar gatherers consume more forest products but are the least likely to formally recognize ecosystem services. We emphasize the importance of identifying social groups within a population and understanding their particular characteristics and perspectives before developing conservation and land use planning policies.

Medicinal plants are an ecosystem service directly implicated in human well-being. In many rural communities, they constitute a main treatment for disease or a source of disease prevention. Here, we review traditional knowledge of medicinal plants, the benefits they provide when cultivated in home gardens, and the determinants of knowledge about their uses in a rural parish in Amazonian Ecuador, where two ethnic groups prevail: indigenous Shuar and settled mestizos. Among 138 garden owners interviewed in 11 communities, a broad knowledge of 104 pharmacological properties across 145 medicinal plant species is retained. Several species play a specific role for a particular culture; therefore, the importance ranking of medicinal plants is different between the two main cultures. Traditional knowledge of medicinal uses is also influenced by ethnicity as well as generational age of the gardeners. Knowledge seems to have been lost in people of younger generations, who cultivated fewer species and knew less about properties of medicinal plants. Although men cultivate more diverse gardens, the role for women in the conservation of agrobiodiversity in home gardens appears crucial, as they are identified as the main source for transmission of traditional knowledge about medicinal plants. Our study highlights the importance of integrated land use management that respects different social aspects (i.e., culture, gender, health and well-being) related to conservation of biodiversity and traditional knowledge in agroecosystems. The authors thank the National Secretary of Higher Education, Science and Technology of Ecuador (SENESCYT) for the doctoral grant received by Veronica Caballero-Serrano. Josu G. Alday was supported by Ramon y Cajal fellowship, Spain [Grant number RYC-2016-20528]. Brian McLaren was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, Canada [Discovery Grant number RPGIN/312/860-2012] and the Chimborazo Polytechnic University, Ecuador. We thank the local population of the Sangay parish for participating in this research and sharing their valuable knowledge.

Homegardens (HG) can play a key role in the conservation of plant diversity and at the same time provide ecosystem services that have a direct and positive impact on human welfare. The relationships among plant diversity, ecosystem services, and the factors that influence them formed the subject of study in tropical HG in Sangay, Ecuador. We compiled information from 138 HG in 11 localities and found 484 plant species associated with 20 ecosystem services, the most important of which, according to interviews with the gardeners, provide food, medicine and ornamentation. Influential physical factors on plant diversity in the HG were altitude, precipitation and temperature, while socioeconomic factors, including ethnicity, gender, income and education, were perhaps more important determinants of HG diversity. Three groups of HG were identified by Hierarchical Ascendant Correspondence Analysis: “small HG of recent origin,” having the fewest species and ecosystem services, “large, transitional HG,” having a wide range of services, and “medium, established HG,” mainly supplying food, medicine, ornamentation, shade and fencing. Ethnicity may be a stronger determinant of differences in HG composition: for Shuar people, HG were a main source of food, critical to their subsistence in rural areas; in total, Shuar gardeners cultivated on the whole more plant species. On the other hand, HG belonging to mestizos were more diverse, have more exotic plant species, and provide mainly cultural and regulatory services. HG in more urban settings mainly provided ornamentation, fencing and shade. This information can be applied by policy makers to the design of strategies for biodiversity conservation and food security.

Whether interactions between wildlife and livestock are competitive or facilitative is context dependent. Intermediary factors that explain how context (seasonal or regional characteristics of the ecological community) affects these interactions are rarely reported. We compared activity time and density in vicuñas (Vicugna vicugna) introduced into the Chimborazo Faunal Production Reserve (CFPR), Ecuador, to describe how they interact with livestock. We compared vicuña density in wetlands and uplands (two landscape structures) with and without livestock (two conditions) using an isodar approach. We measured, over two seasons, vicuña forage abundance, composition, preference and accessibility, time vicuñas spent vigilant, and their flight distances on approach. We tested optimal foraging theory relating to the hypothesis that time mediates behavior, and found that vicuñas were no less frequently vigilant, nor were flight distances greater, during a wet season or in habitats of greater forage abundance and accessibility. We also found no evidence that vicuña behavior was density dependent; instead, we found that more time was spent vigilant by vicuñas when they foraged near livestock in rainy regions during the dry season. Although forage abundance was similar throughout CFPR during a dry season, better forage quality in areas occupied by livestock may constitute an effect of their facilitating vicuñas. A puzzling finding, because it was not explained by any of the other variables we measured, was that at low densities vicuñas selected habitat irrespective of livestock, and where their density was higher, it was doubly so adjacent to livestock. We conclude that in the CFPR, spatial heterogeneity in habitat quality determines the interactions between livestock and vicuñas. To support recommendations that minimize competition between wildlife and livestock, and to expand on descriptions of the contexts that determine the direction of species interactions, future study may require a wider sampling of the densities of sympatric large herbivores in general, and, in the CFPR, a closer resolution of spatial heterogeneity in forage plant quality.

In many parts of the world, protected areas harbour permanent livestock that range freely with native herbivores. These domestic animals are typically an undesirable ecosystem component because they pose a challenge to park managers and biologists who wish to maintain ‘natural’ species interactions and diversity. Studies dealing with livestock in protected areas have primarily focussed on interactions such as competition for food resources with native herbivores, habitat degradation, and human-carnivore conflicts caused by livestock depredation. The negative effects of such interactions are a major threat to the survival of many mammalian prey and predator species. However, the role of indirect interactions between native herbivores and domestic prey, via their common enemy, has received comparatively little attention and poses a significant knowledge gap in understanding the net impacts of domestic prey on native herbivores. We present our perspectives on ignored or missed indirect interactions in livestock–native ungulate systems, and suggest some management actions for understanding these systems and minimising conflicts. A broader understanding of indirect interactions among livestock, native herbivores and their predators will aid in more informed protected-area management.

Persistence for woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus) in Pukaskwa National Park (PNP, Ontario, Canada; 1878 km2) was tied to females finding safe calving areas on offshore islands with a water barrier created by Lake Superior. During 1975–1988, PNP caribou fluctuated around a carrying capacity of 24, but after 1988 the population declined, falling to 5 individuals by 2009. Caribou are now likely extirpated from PNP, even in the absence of any local or increased anthropogenic disturbance since the protected area was created in 1978. As moose (Alces alces) in the region declined concurrently, their relative density remained higher along the Lake Superior coastal strip than further inland, the reverse of the situation during 1975–1988; moose especially held to the coast during heavy snow years. Wolves (Canis lupus) accordingly shifted more of their hunting effort to the coast, likely encountering both moose and caribou with increasing search efficiency. These behaviours are described as a predator—p...

Given the importance of wildlife habitat protection in meeting land use management objectives, criteria for “habitat” identification are surprisingly amorphous. For example, while much current habitat modeling has tended to avoid the term “niche modeling”, niche assumptions are implicit – meaning the presence of predators and competitors is essential to whether or not a species uses, or will use, an area. In this paper, we examine environmental variables associated with woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou) presence in the boreal forests of northwestern Ontario, Canada. Based on winter aerial surveys conducted in 2010–2013, we used logistic regression to identify important habitat characteristics (and/or their surrogates) and structural equation modeling (SEM) to explore causal and indirect caribou habitat relationships, at broad and fine scales. The best-fit regression model (>10,000 ha) to explain caribou presence, at the broad scale, included the presence of moose (Alces alces), wolves (Canis lupus), logging roads and primary roads, and all top models included wolves. In contrast, at the fine scale (

Habitat for American martens (Martes americana) is associated with forest types that offer fine-scale structural complexity in part used to access the winter subnivean environment, which is used for food procurement, predator avoidance, and rest. We assessed habitat characteristics associated with points of subnivean access by martens from winter tracking in a boreal mixedwood forest in northern Ontario. We then assessed areas designated as reserved marten habitat according to Forest Management Guidelines for the Provision of Marten Habitat in Ontario with respect to these characteristics. Coarse woody debris counts were positively associated with subnivean access. We found some evidence that subnivean access points differed in a transition from patches of coniferous to mixedwood forest, defined by tree basal area. Especially in mixedwood patches, deciduous shrub density may also facilitate subnivean access. Development of guidelines to protect features associated with fine-scale structural comp...

Growing development pressures and expectations that forest managers provide future wildlife habitat require better understanding of species' habitat needs, particularly food, cover, and space requirements, and an ability to spatially depict these needs. In forest management in Canada, the primary data used to identify and quantify wildlife habitat reside in remotely sensed forest resource inventories (FRI) that were originally developed to assess timber values for merchantable tree species. Although FRI- and field-based sampling do not always show strong agreement, research has shown that FRI can be informative for wildlife habitat assessments. However, much uncertainty remains when investigating forest characteristics that are not visible to the interpreters, such as sub-canopy features. Here, we used 152 plots in northwestern Ontario to compare the ability of field-based and remotely sensed forest inventories to predict Cladonia lichen cover, a primary winter food source for woodland caribou. The best model for field-based data, which included percentage of jack pine and black spruce in the tree canopy, tree height, stand age, soil moisture, and stem density, correctly predicted 92% of cases where Cladonia spp. were absent (n = 107 plots) and 62% of cases where they were present (i.e., cover >1%; n = 45 plots). FRI performed poorly by contrast, with corresponding percentages of 96 and 19%. FRI provide weak data support for differentiating winter forage availability for woodland caribou, an important habitat factor at the stand level. These findings have important implications for predictions of herd productivity, and suggest that improved remote-sensing capabilities are required in order to assess woodland caribou winter habitat.

Livestock populations in protected areas are viewed negatively because of their interaction with native ungulates through direct competition for food resources. However, livestock and native prey can also interact indirectly through their shared predator. Indirect interactions between two prey species occur when one prey modifies either the functional or numerical responses of a shared predator. This interaction is often manifested as negative effects (apparent competition) on one or both prey species through increased predation risk. But indirect interactions can also yield positive effects on a focal prey if the shared predator modifies its functional response toward increased consumption of an abundant and higher-quality alternative prey. Such a phenomenon between two prey species is underappreciated and overlooked in nature. Positive indirect effects can be expected to occur in livestock-dominated wildlife reserves containing large carnivores. We searched for such positive effects in Acacia-Zizhypus forests of India's Gir sanctuary where livestock (Bubalus bubalis and Bos indicus) and a coexisting native prey (chital deer, Axis axis) are consumed by Asiatic lions (Panthera leo persica). Chital vigilance was higher in areas with low livestock density than in areas with high livestock density. This positive indirect effect occurred because lion predation rates on livestock were twice as great where livestock were abundant than where livestock density was low. Positive indirect interactions mediated by shared predators may be more common than generally thought with rather major consequences for ecological understanding and conservation. We encourage further studies to understand outcomes of indirect interactions on long-term predator-prey dynamics in livestock-dominated protected areas.

An individual’s choice of habitat should optimize amongst conflicting demands in a way that maximizes its fitness. Habitat selection by one species will often be influenced by presence and abundance of competitors that interact directly and indirectly with each other (such as through shared predators). The optimal habitat choice will thus depend on competition for resources by other species that can also modify predation risk. It may be possible to disentangle these two effects with careful analysis of density-dependent habitat selection by a focal prey species. We tested this conjecture by calculating habitat isodars (graphs of density assuming ideal habitat selection) of chital deer living in two adjoining dryforest habitats in Gir National Park and Sanctuary, western India. The habitats differed only in presence (Sanctuary) and absence (National Park) of domestic prey (cattle and buffalo). Both species are preyed on by Asiatic lions. The habitat isodar revealed at low densities, that chital live in small groups and prefer habitat co-occupied by livestock that reduce food resources, but also reduce predation risk. At higher densities, chital form larger groups and switch their preference toward risky habitat without livestock. The switch in chital habitat use is consistent with theories predicting that prey species should trade off safety in favor of food as population density increases.

Natural disturbance emulation has emerged as a key management approach to maintaining biodiversity in logged boreal forests. Forest managers’ success in emulating understory forest ecosystem functions, e.g., for the provision of habitat even for large mammals, has not been tested due, in many cases, to incomplete records of silviculture. We examined regenerating areas of previously conifer-dominated forests in northwestern Ontario, Canada, 10 and 30 years after logging and 10 and 30 years after fire to test if understory development and moose (Alces alces) forage abundance differed between the two disturbance types and artificial or natural regeneration approaches. In addition, we counted moose pellet groups as a measure of moose use of the region. Specific treatments included: (1) naturally regenerating, fire-origin forests, (2) post-harvest, regenerating forests with natural establishment of trees, and (3) post-harvest, regenerating forests with mechanical or chemical site preparation and planting and/or herbicide spraying. We hypothesized that the understory in post-harvest stands would support higher forage availability for moose compared to similarly-aged, fire-origin stands. Abundance of hardwoods, shrubs, and herbaceous plants was greater in naturally-regenerated post-harvest stands than in fire-origin and artificially regenerated post-harvest stands at both 10 and 30 years post-disturbance. However, post-harvest, naturally regenerating stands were not significantly associated with higher moose use, rather evidence of moose use increased as a function of the amount of naturally regenerating logged forest in the surrounding landscape. This study suggests that, relative to fire, the intensity of post-harvest silviculture influences habitat suitability for moose. The effect likely cascades to other ungulates, such as woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), and vegetation management needs to be considered at scales greater than the stand level in order to achieve habitat management for large mammals.

For land management agencies such as Parks Canada that are tasked with maintaining the ecological integrity of protected, natural landscapes, dealing with the impacts of non-indigenous species on forest succession is a serious management concern. In both Terra Nova and Gros Morne National Parks (island of Newfoundland, Canada), the cumulative impacts of non-native species are negatively affecting the capacity of a dominant conifer, balsam fir (Abies balsamea), to regenerate following canopy disturbance by forest insects. Early development of an understory fir layer is compromised by heavy predation on female cones by red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), and post-dispersal seed and seedling predation by non-native rodents and slugs. Taller saplings are then subjected to heavy browsing from non-native moose (Alces alces) so that recruitment to reproductive-aged trees is largely inhibited. An indirect effect of the long-term removal of understory fir is that seedbeds are shifting from optimal f...

Newfoundland pulp logs were once considered an abundant resource available for export, but over the last part of the 20th century became a shrinking commodity, imported to the island to keep 3 paper mills supplied. What were the concurrent changes in the human and the forested landscapes? Faced with increasing resource and labour costs, forest operations became increasingly centralized and mechanized during the second half of the 20th century. Labour productivity increased and, until the mid-1970s, pulpwood processing also increased as a means for forest companies to remain competitive. By the mid-1970s, processed volumes began to fall, but the number of employees in the forest sector continued to decline, resulting in a steady increase in the volume of pulpwood required to support a forest sector job. Forests accessed by loggers were first concentrated around waterways and then became more dispersed across the landscape, as a result of changes in wood extraction and transportation technologies. Beginning in the 1950s and increasingly through the 1980s, pulpwood was cut from targeted, high-volume stands. Eventually 2 of the 3 paper mills was forced to close, in part because of higher costs associated with accessing pulpwood. Newfoundland’s history of forestry restructuring is similar to the experience elsewhere in Canada. We suggest that signals of overexploitation have been often overlooked by policy-makers and changes in the forest sector can be more easily viewed as a response to new technologies and global markets than policy-making. Key words: Canada, employment, history, landscape, logging, Newfoundland and Labrador, policy, restructuring, sustainability

Changes to ecosystems caused by introduced herbivores can be predictable, stepwise transitions or unpredictable and even irreversible state changes. This study's objectives were to explore effects on forest succession and soil development 5 years after moose ( Alces alces L.) were fenced out of areas within and adjacent to a national park in Newfoundland, Canada. Study plots spanned a range of understorey broadleaf plant associations with regenerating balsam fir ( Abies balsamea (L.) Mill.), an important winter forage plant for moose and a dominant canopy tree throughout Newfoundland. After 5 years, height–diameter ratios were significantly larger for larger basal diameters of understorey balsam fir in unfenced, but not in fenced subplots, suggesting that growth of the conifer is compromised within the exclosure. In contrast, for most broadleaf trees and shrubs, moose removal by fencing results in greater heights and basal diameters than in control subplots. The competitive advantage of broadleaf trees and shrubs over balsam fir in the short-term may be a result of past sustained heavy moose browsing benefiting plants that are better at investing resources into below-ground growth or benefiting plants that have broader leaf canopies. It is not clear how long the broadleaf transition state we document will continue. Restorative actions intended to mimic usual patterns of forest regeneration in this region of Newfoundland might best consider moose removal with site preparation and/or planting to historic densities.

Knowledge of the effect of mining developments on caribou Rangifer tarandus is fragmentary. We examined the impact of the Hope Brook gold mine, southwestern Newfoundland, on the La Poile woodland caribou herd on a section of their year-round range. We examined the impact of the mine on caribou distribution during three phases of mine activity (pre-disturbance, construction and open-pit mining and underground mine and mill operation) in five seasons (winter, late winter, pre-calving, calving and autumn). Aerial surveys were conducted on a monthly basis from September 1985 to July 1991. Following initiation of the mine construction, caribou abundance increased with distance from the mine site in all seasons, and caribou avoided areas within 4 km of the site in most seasons. Within 6 km of the mine centre, group size and the number of caribou decreased as mine activity progressed in late winter, pre-calving and calving seasons. Although the impact of the mine was most prominent in the pre-calving an...

Three major strategies exist for the protection of endangered habitat and species: (1) land acquisition programs, (2) government legislation and regulatory agencies, and (3) "stewardship" programs that are voluntary and community-based. While all of these strategies have merit, we suggest that stewardship holds particular advantages and should be considered more often as a strategy of first choice. In this article, we examine the Municipal Wetland Stewardship program of Newfoundland, a popular and successful Canadian policy for the local protection of wetlands. Important issues are at stake: competing philosophical foundations for managerial ecology, the value of "local ecological knowledge," principles of community-based conservation, the question of whether stewardship empowers local communities or controls them from afar, and ethical conflicts around American colonialism, hunting, and ecotourism. The results suggest that despite some potentially problematic ironies, the Newfoundland program provides a model for a public policy aimed both at the pragmatics of biophysical sustainability and at the ideals of environmental ethics, social justice, and democratic politics.

During this time of heightened awareness of issues related to sustainable development, there has been an explosion and advancement in communication and computer technologies. Merging the study of sustainable development in rural North America with technological innovation is the subject of this chapter. The authors discuss the evolution in education from traditional teaching environments and approaches, to interactive student and instructor learning's via computers and the Internet. The chapter reviews the authors' experience in a synchronous e-learning course on rural sustainability over a large geographic area, including the technology and technological challenges, working with diverse cultures, languages and academic disciplines, benefits and lessons learned.

Forest inventory maps and a manual interpretation of forestry-enhanced Landsat imagery are compared to the results of a detailed aerial photograph interpretation used to map habitat for caribou (Rangifer tarandus terra novae) in a relatively unforested region of Newfoundland. This comparison serves as an illustration of the pitfalls inherent in using readily available remote sensing technologies in applications for which they were not intended. The non-forest classes in the Newfoundland Forest Inventory are too broad to describe single vegetation communities, and only rarely are vegetation communities found entirely within a single forest inventory class. For example, "bog" is relatively well associated with wetland vegetation classes and "barren" with upland classes, but "scrub" is a misleading term used to describe both forest and non-forest communities. An earlier (global) forest classification for Newfoundland has a more reliable association of scrub with forest, but a less reliable identification of bog than later updates to the forest inventory in the study area. Landsat imagery applications for forest inventory updates do not appear useful in identifying non-forest vegetation communities. Caution should be taken in using forest inventory maps in wildlife habitat applications when the habitat includes important non-forest components. Key words: forest inventory, habitat classification, Landsat imagery, mapping, remote sensing

This article presents a methodology based on classification of images from Landsat 7 ETM + to classify Andean wetlands known as ¨Bofedal¨ (wetland) located in the Fauna Production Reserve Chimborazo. Five of the seven in-situ geo-referenced bofedales belong to this category and two belong to the altiplano. These georeferenced reservoirs are the principal habitat of the vicuñas that are located within the RPFCH in the jurisdictions of the province of Tungurahua: Río Blanco, ¨Mocha¨ Valley area, 472.26 ha, 4400 m.; Chimborazo Province: Bofedal Quebrada Toni, Urbina area, 16.74 ha, 4301 m, bofedal El Refugio (Hermanos Carrel) at the Nevado Chimborazo, 1.44 ha, 4800msnm, and Curi bofedal Pogyo, Chorrera Mirador, 0.34 ha., 4523 m. and in the Bolivar Province: the wetlands Chag Pogyo, Pulinguí San Pablo, 19.36 ha, 4064 meters above sea level. Bofedal Sinche1, the sector ¨antennas¨, 8.53 ha. 4167 m., And Sinche2, ¨Puente Ayora¨ area, 9.39 ha., 3981 meters, the latter being Chag Pogyo highland bofedales. The seven bofedales represent 0.93% (527.87 ha) of the total area of the RPFCH (56653, 27 ha.). Two images of the satellite Landsat 7 ETM +, from the years 2001 - EarthSat, 2004 - USGS and an orthophoto 2013-2014 - GIS land were used. Georeferenced and rectified to capture the spatial and temporal variability of these ecosystems and define the characterization of bofedales in the reserve. For each image two classification methods were used, the supervised classification being the most efficient when representing the four representative classes in the RPFCH: snow, rock, pajonal and bofedal. Since this classification is oriented to objects that takes into account aspects such as shape and texture and not just the spectral information of each pixel. Allowing to obtain information on the characteristics and spatial distribution of the bofedales which was verified and validated later in the field. This process allows the generation of digital cartography with the identification, delimited and distributed bofedales along the RPFCH, representing a total of approximately 1483.94 ha in the RPFCH. In addition, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was applied, which made it possible to differentiate water bodies from other coverages, as well as specifically to know the extent of the reservoirs present in the Reserve, in order to better infer Distribution of vicuñas.

A study of use and damage of pre-commercially thinned (PCT) forest stands containing balsam fir (Abies balsamea [L.] Mill.) by moose (Alces alces L.) in central Newfoundland was undertaken to determine how potentially conflicting resource management goals such as wood yield optimization and provision of stable moose populations could be achieved. Objectives were to measure spatial and temporal variability in damage to balsam fir due to moose habitat preferences for certain stand types and stem densities, and, secondly, to explore possibilities for manipulating PCT operations, within this context, to minimize damage. A stable moose population was achieved over 5 years of study, through the issue of licences for a management sub-area designed to coincide with on-going PCT. Good road access ensured high success for hunters in this sub-area, and this management option eventually allowed for declines in moose density and in browsing of crop trees in PCT stands. Aerial census techniques were the preferred means of determining areas of high use or high potential use; pellet group counts were only weakly correlated to measures of browsing in vegetation sample plots. Identification of localized areas of use, or of moose habitat preferences that were likely primary to the selection of PCT stands, may allow PCT operations to be planned to avoid winter moose ‘yards.’ Consideration by management should be given to locating PCT in stands like those containing black spruce, which are less frequently occupied by moose. Management of hardwood also appears to be important for reducing potential moose damage to balsam fir stands when moose densities are high.

We report tenth-year growth and yield improvements in the Wally Creek area, an experimental, systematic drainage project established in 1984 and fertilized in 1986, in a forested Ontario peatland. We analyzed and compared results for dominant–codominant and intermediate black spruce in two site types. Response of trees to NPK-fertilization was more immediate than to drainage. Response to drainage took about five to seven years, whereas response to fertilization occurred earlier, from three to five years. Some indication of an asymmetric response, with larger trees experiencing higher growth increases, was observed for the OG 11 (Ledum) site type, while yield increases were potentially higher in the OG 12 (Alnus herb-poor) site type. Drainage was most effective in combination with fertilization. Consistent for both site types were increases in phosphorus associated with fertilization. The Wally Creek project is a benchmark in the analysis of growth and yield response from intensive peatland silviculture. Key words: black spruce, drainage, fertilization, foliar analysis, growth response, growth and yield, Lake Abitibi Model Forest, Ontario, stem analysis

While balsam fir (Abiesbalsamea (L.) Mill.) dominated forests are vanishing from the southwest end of Isle Royale National Park, Michigan, renewal of fir stands is occurring on the northeast end. We speculate that the difference is related both to severe browsing by moose (Alcesalces L.), and to the frequency of disturbances like fire and windthrow. A survey of 24 stands and in situ experimentation on Isle Royale show that balsam fir seedling survival is optimal under 40–79% canopy cover. Late-season and overwinter mortality in 1-year-old seedlings is highest under >80% canopy cover, while germination is lowest under

Balsam fir (Abies balsamea) is a shade-tolerant conifer that experiences striking growth suppression from browsing of the understory of mixed, boreal-type forests of Isle Royale, Michigan, where it forms an important component of moose (Alces alces) diet in winter. Suppression increases with increasing canopy cover and forest age. However, response to an individual, severe browsing episode cannot be generalized in terms of suppression. Such shorter-term responses are best investigated by experimentation. Artificial removal of foliage from understory balsam fir in two sites on Isle Royale and one mainland site showed that damage such as reduced terminal growth and complete mortality was actually highest among least suppressed trees. Canopy cover produced a secondary effect, in which trees experiencing >60% cover were unable to compensate for removal by clipping. Among less suppressed trees, competition for limited light produced an apically oriented morphology that countered the laterally oriented morphology associated with suppression. Higher vulnerability to the artificial browsing occurred because trees were no longer protected by snow cover. By the second growing season following clipping, surviving clipped trees even in the most damaged sites resumed the same growth as controls. Over the long term, suppression may be a means by which fir remains alive when subjected to continuous browsing. Over the shorter term, delayed growth recovery following severe browsing in an unsuppressed understory may also contribute to sustainability in Isle Royale's plant-herbivore system.

Investigation of tree growth in Isle Royale National Park in Michigan revealed the influence of herbivores and carnivores on plants in an intimately linked food chain. Plant growth rates were regulated by cycles in animal density and responded to annual changes in primary productivity only when released from herbivory by wolf predation. Isle Royale's dendrochronology complements a rich literature on food chain control in aquatic systems, which often supports a trophic cascade model. This study provides evidence of top-down control in a forested ecosystem.

Because apex predators exert considerable influence on the structure and function of top-down ecosystems1,2,3, their responses to climate may shape responses at lower trophic levels4. Previous reports of trophic cascades and ecosystem dynamics induced by predators have focused on changes in their abundance5,6,7,8, whereas we investigated whether changes in predator behaviour could precipitate cascades of similar ecological scale. Here we report the ecological consequences of predator behavioural response to global climatic variation using 40 years of data on wolf predation from Isle Royale, USA, where wolves limit abundance of moose9, which limit productivity of fir trees10. In response to increases in winter snow related to the North Atlantic Oscillation, wolves hunted in larger packs and, consequently, tripled the number of moose killed per day compared with less snowy years when they hunted in smaller packs. Following increased predation rates, moose abundance declined, and, following release from heavy browsing, growth of understory fir increased. Hence, cascading behavioural responses of apex predators may be a substantial link in the pathway from climatic change to ecosystem function.