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External beam radiotherapy often includes the use of field sizes 3 × 3 cm2 or less, which can be defined as small fields. Dosimetry is a difficult, yet important part of the radiotherapy process. The dosimetry of small fields has additional challenges, which can lead to treatment inconsistencies if not done properly. Most important is the use of an appropriate detector, as well as the application of the necessary corrections. The International Atomic Energy Agency and the American Association of Physicists in Medicine provide the International Code of Practice (CoP) TRS-483 for the dosimetry of small static fields used in external MV photon beams. It gives guidelines on how to apply small-field correction factors for small field dosimetry. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of inaccurate small-field output factors on clinical brain stereotactic radiosurgery plans with and without applying the small-field correction factors as suggested in the CoP. Small-field correction factors for a Varian TrueBeam linear accelerator were applied to uncorrected relative dose factors. Uncorrected and corrected clinical plans were created with two different beam configurations, 6 MV with a flattening filter (6 WFF) and 6 MV without a flattening filter (6 FFF). For the corrected plans, the planning target volume mean dose was 1.6 ± 0.9% lower with p

MRS of 13 C4 -labelled glutamate (13 C4 -Glu) during an infusion of a carbon-13 (13 C)-labelled substrate, such as uniformly labelled glucose ([U-13 C6 ]-Glc), provides a measure of Glc metabolism. The presented work provides a single-shot indirect 13 C detection technique to quantify the approximately 2.51 ppm 13 C4 -Glu satellite proton (1 H) peak at 9.4 T. The methodology is an optimized point-resolved spectroscopy (PRESS) sequence that minimizes signal contamination from the strongly coupled protons of N-acetylaspartate (NAA), which resonate at approximately 2.49 ppm. J-coupling evolution of protons was characterized numerically and verified experimentally. A (TE1 , TE2 ) combination of (20 ms, 106 ms) was found to be suitable for minimizing NAA signal in the 2.51 ppm 1 H 13 C4 -Glu spectral region, while retaining the 13 C4 -Glu 1 H satellite peak. The efficacy of the technique was verified on phantom solutions and on two rat brains in vivo during an infusion of [U-13 C6 ]-Glc. LCModel was employed for analysis of the in vivo spectra to quantify the 2.51 ppm 1 H 13 C4 -Glu signal to obtain Glu C4 fractional enrichment time courses during the infusions. Cramer-Rao lower bounds of about 8% were obtained for the 2.51 ppm 13 C4 -Glu 1 H satellite peak with the optimal TE combination.

Point-resolved spectroscopy (PRESS), characterized by two TEs (TE1 and TE2 ), can be employed to perform animal magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) studies at 9.4 T. Taurine (Tau) and choline (Cho) are relevant metabolites that can be measured by MRS. In this work, the response of the J-coupled protons of Tau as a function of PRESS TE1 and TE2 was characterized at 9.4 T to achieve two objectives. The first was to determine two TE1 and TE2 combinations that could be used to obtain T2 -corrected measures of Tau (3.42 ppm) that were minimally influenced by J coupling. The second was to exploit the Tau J coupling to find a timing combination that minimized the 3.25-ppm Tau signal to enable the Cho (3.22 ppm) resonance to be resolved from the overlapping Tau signal. The response of Tau protons was investigated both numerically and experimentally. It was numerically determined that the timings {TE1 , TE2 } = {17 ms, 10 ms} and {TE1 , TE2 } = {80 ms, 70 ms} yielded similar 3.42-ppm Tau resonance areas (5% difference), rendering them suitable for Tau T2 determination. {TE1 , TE2 } = {25 ms, 50 ms} was found to yield minimal 3.25-ppm Tau signal, reducing its interference with Cho. The efficacy of the timings was demonstrated on phantom solutions and in vivo in four Sprague Dawley rats. LCModel was employed to analyse the in vivo spectra and Tau T2 values were estimated by fitting the Tau peak areas obtained with {TE1 , TE2 } = {17 ms, 10 ms} and {TE1 , TE2 } = {80 ms, 70 ms} to a monoexponentially decaying function. An average Tau T2 of 106 ms (standard deviation, 12 ms) was obtained. LCModel analysis of rat spectra obtained with {TE1 , TE2 } = {25 ms, 50 ms} demonstrated negligible levels of Tau signal, compared with that obtained with short TE.

MRS of

Glutamine (Gln), glutamate (Glu) and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are relevant brain metabolites that can be measured with magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). This work optimizes the point-resolved spectroscopy (PRESS) sequence echo times, TE1 and TE2 , for improved simultaneous quantification of the three metabolites at 9.4 T. Quantification was based on the proton resonances of Gln, Glu and GABA at ≈2.45, ≈2.35 and ≈2.28 ppm, respectively. Glu exhibits overlap with both Gln and GABA; in addition, the Gln peak is contaminated by signal from the strongly coupled protons of N-acetylaspartate (NAA), which resonate at about 2.49 ppm. J-coupling evolution of the protons was characterized numerically and verified experimentally. A {TE1 , TE2 } combination of {106 ms, 16 ms} minimized the NAA signal in the Gln spectral region, whilst retaining Gln, Glu and GABA peaks. The efficacy of the technique was verified on phantom solutions and on rat brain in vivo. LCModel was employed to analyze the in vivo spectra. The average T2 -corrected Gln, Glu and GABA concentrations were found to be 3.39, 11.43 and 2.20 mM, respectively, assuming a total creatine concentration of 8.5 mM. LCModel Cramer-Rao lower bounds (CRLBs) for Gln, Glu and GABA were in the ranges 14-17%, 4-6% and 16-19%, respectively. The optimal TE resulted in concentrations for Gln and GABA that agreed more closely with literature concentrations compared with concentrations obtained from short-TE spectra acquired with a {TE1 , TE2 } combination of {12 ms, 9 ms}. LCModel estimations were also evaluated with short-TE PRESS and with the optimized long TE of {106 ms, 16 ms}, using phantom solutions of known metabolite concentrations. It was shown that concentrations estimated with LCModel can be inaccurate when combined with short-TE PRESS, where there is peak overlap, even when low (

Point-resolved spectroscopy (PRESS), characterized by two TEs (TE1 and TE2 ), can be employed to perform animal magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) studies at 9.4 T. Taurine (Tau) and choline (Cho) are relevant metabolites that can be measured by MRS. In this work, the response of the J-coupled protons of Tau as a function of PRESS TE1 and TE2 was characterized at 9.4 T to achieve two objectives. The first was to determine two TE1 and TE2 combinations that could be used to obtain T2 -corrected measures of Tau (3.42 ppm) that were minimally influenced by J coupling. The second was to exploit the Tau J coupling to find a timing combination that minimized the 3.25-ppm Tau signal to enable the Cho (3.22 ppm) resonance to be resolved from the overlapping Tau signal. The response of Tau protons was investigated both numerically and experimentally. It was numerically determined that the timings {TE1 , TE2 } = {17 ms, 10 ms} and {TE1 , TE2 } = {80 ms, 70 ms} yielded similar 3.42-ppm Tau resonance areas (5% difference), rendering them suitable for Tau T2 determination. {TE1 , TE2 } = {25 ms, 50 ms} was found to yield minimal 3.25-ppm Tau signal, reducing its interference with Cho. The efficacy of the timings was demonstrated on phantom solutions and in vivo in four Sprague Dawley rats. LCModel was employed to analyse the in vivo spectra and Tau T2 values were estimated by fitting the Tau peak areas obtained with {TE1 , TE2 } = {17 ms, 10 ms} and {TE1 , TE2 } = {80 ms, 70 ms} to a monoexponentially decaying function. An average Tau T2 of 106 ms (standard deviation, 12 ms) was obtained. LCModel analysis of rat spectra obtained with {TE1 , TE2 } = {25 ms, 50 ms} demonstrated negligible levels of Tau signal, compared with that obtained with short TE.

The objective of this work is to optimize the Point Resolved Spectroscopy (PRESS) sequence echo times, TE1 and TE2, for glycine (Gly) detection at 9.4 T, a common field strength at which animal magnetic resonance studies are conducted. The two uncoupled protons of Gly resonate at about 3.55 ppm and their peak is largely overwhelmed by signal from the strongly coupled protons of myo-inositol (mI) which resonate in the Gly spectral region (3.52–3.57 ppm). J-coupling evolution of the mI protons was characterized at 9.4 T by numerical calculations and by acquiring PRESS spectra with various {TE1, TE2} combinations from a 50 mM mI phantom. A {TE1, TE2} combination of {60 ms, 100 ms} minimized mI signal in the Gly spectral region and its efficacy was verified on mI and Gly phantom solutions and on rat brain in vivo. LCModel was employed to analyse in vivo spectra. The average Gly concentration from three rat brains was found to be 1.35 mM assuming a creatine (Cr) concentration of 8 mM. LCModel Cramer-Rao Lower Bound values for Gly ranged between 15% and 20%.