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Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae biovar 3 (Psa3) has decimated kiwifruit orchards growing susceptible kiwifruit Actinidia chinensis varieties. Effector loss has occurred recently in Psa3 isolates from resistant kiwifruit germplasm, resulting in strains capable of partially overcoming resistance present in kiwiberry vines (Actinidia arguta, Actinidia polygama, and Actinidia melanandra). Diploid male A. melanandra recognises several effectors, sharing recognition of at least one avirulence effector (HopAW1a) with previously studied tetraploid kiwiberry vines. Sequencing and assembly of the A. melanandra genome enabled the characterisation of the transcriptomic response of this non-host to wild-type and genetic mutants of Psa3. A. melanandra appears to mount a classic effector-triggered immunity (ETI) response to wildtype Psa3 V-13, as expected. Surprisingly, the type III secretion (T3SS) system-lacking Psa3 V-13 ∆hrcC strain did not appear to trigger pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) despite lacking the ability to deliver immunity-suppressing effectors. Contrasting the A. melanandra responses to an effectorless Psa3 V-13 ∆33E strain and to Psa3 V-13 ∆hrcC suggested that PTI triggered by Psa3 V-13 was based on the recognition of the T3SS itself. The characterisation of both ETI and PTI branches of innate immunity responses within A. melanandra further enables breeding for durable resistance in future kiwifruit cultivars., (© 2024 The Author(s). Plant, Cell & Environment published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae biovar 3 (Psa3) causes a devastating canker disease in yellow-fleshed kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis). The effector HopZ5, which is present in all isolates of Psa3 causing global outbreaks of pandemic kiwifruit canker disease, triggers immunity in Nicotiana benthamiana and is not recognised in susceptible A. chinensis cultivars. In a search for N. benthamiana nonhost resistance genes against HopZ5, we found that the nucleotide-binding leucine-rich repeat receptor NbPTR1 recognised HopZ5. RPM1-interacting protein 4 orthologues from N. benthamiana and A. chinensis formed a complex with NbPTR1 and HopZ5 activity was able to disrupt this interaction. No functional orthologues of NbPTR1 were found in A. chinensis. NbPTR1 transformed into Psa3-susceptible A. chinensis var. chinensis 'Hort16A' plants introduced HopZ5-specific resistance against Psa3. Altogether, this study suggested that expressing NbPTR1 in Psa3-susceptible kiwifruit is a viable approach to acquiring resistance to Psa3 and it provides valuable information for engineering resistance in otherwise susceptible kiwifruit genotypes., (© 2024 The Author(s). Plant, Cell & Environment published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Variation in anthocyanin biosynthesis in pear fruit provides genetic germplasm resources for breeding, while dwarfing is an important agronomic trait, which is beneficial to reduce the management costs and allow for the implementation of high-density cultivation. Here, we combined bulked segregant analysis (BSA), quantitative trait loci (QTL), and structural variation (SV) analysis to identify a 14-bp deletion which caused a frame shift mutation and resulted in the premature translation termination of a B-box (BBX) family of zinc transcription factor, PyBBX24, and its allelic variation termed PyBBX24 ΔN14 . PyBBX24 ΔN14 overexpression promotes anthocyanin biosynthesis in pear, strawberry, Arabidopsis, tobacco, and tomato, while that of PyBBX24 did not. PyBBX24 ΔN14 directly activates the transcription of PyUFGT and PyMYB10 through interaction with PyHY5. Moreover, stable overexpression of PyBBX24 ΔN14 exhibits a dwarfing phenotype in Arabidopsis, tobacco, and tomato plants. PyBBX24 ΔN14 can activate the expression of PyGA2ox8 via directly binding to its promoter, thereby deactivating bioactive GAs and reducing the plant height. However, the nuclear localization signal (NLS) and Valine-Proline (VP) motifs in the C-terminus of PyBBX24 reverse these effects. Interestingly, mutations leading to premature termination of PyBBX24 were also identified in red sports of un-related European pear varieties. We conclude that mutations in PyBBX24 gene link both an increase in pigmentation and a decrease in plant height., (© 2024 The Authors. Plant Biotechnology Journal published by Society for Experimental Biology and The Association of Applied Biologists and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Testing effector knockout strains of the Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae biovar 3 (Psa3) for reduced in planta growth in their native kiwifruit host revealed a number of nonredundant effectors that contribute to Psa3 virulence. Conversely, complementation in the weak kiwifruit pathogen P. syringae pv. actinidifoliorum (Pfm) for increased growth identified redundant Psa3 effectors. Psa3 effectors hopAZ1a and HopS2b and the entire exchangeable effector locus (ΔEEL; 10 effectors) were significant contributors to bacterial colonisation of the host and were additive in their effects on virulence. Four of the EEL effectors (HopD1a, AvrB2b, HopAW1a and HopD2a) redundantly contribute to virulence through suppression of pattern-triggered immunity (PTI). Important Psa3 effectors include several redundantly required effectors early in the infection process (HopZ5a, HopH1a, AvrPto1b, AvrRpm1a and HopF1e). These largely target the plant immunity hub, RIN4. This comprehensive effector profiling revealed that Psa3 carries robust effector redundancy for a large portion of its effectors, covering a few functions critical to disease., (© 2023 The Authors. New Phytologist © 2023 New Phytologist Foundation.)

A pandemic isolate of Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae biovar 3 (Psa3) has devastated kiwifruit orchards growing cultivars of Actinidia chinensis. In contrast, A. arguta (kiwiberry) is not a host of Psa3. Resistance is mediated via effector-triggered immunity, as demonstrated by induction of the hypersensitive response in infected A. arguta leaves, observed by microscopy and quantified by ion-leakage assays. Isolates of Psa3 that cause disease in A. arguta have been isolated and analyzed, revealing a 51 kb deletion in the exchangeable effector locus (EEL). This natural EEL-mutant isolate and strains with synthetic knockouts of the EEL were more virulent in A. arguta plantlets than wild-type Psa3. Screening of a complete library of Psa3 effector knockout strains identified increased growth in planta for knockouts of four effectors-AvrRpm1a, HopF1c, HopZ5a, and the EEL effector HopAW1a -suggesting a resistance response in A. arguta. Hypersensitive response (HR) assays indicate that three of these effectors trigger a host species-specific HR. A Psa3 strain with all four effectors knocked out escaped host recognition, but a cumulative increase in bacterial pathogenicity and virulence was not observed. These avirulence effectors can be used in turn to identify the first cognate resistance genes in Actinidia for breeding durable resistance into future kiwifruit cultivars., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The infection of Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae in kiwifruit is currently assessed by numerous methodologies, each with their own limitations. Most studies are based on either a laborious method of growth quantification of the pathogen or qualitative assessments by visual scoring following stem or cutting inoculation. Additionally, when assessing for resistance against specific pathogen effectors, confounding interactions between multiple genes in the pathogen can make mapping resistance phenotypes nearly impossible. Here, we present robust alternative methods to quantify pathogen load based on rapid bacterial DNA quantification by PCR, the use of Pseudomonas fluorescens , and a transient reporter eclipse assay for assessing resistance conferred by isolated bacterial avirulence genes. These assays compare well with bacterial plate counts to assess bacterial colonization as a result of plant resistance activation. The DNA-based quantification, when coupled with the P. fluorescens and reporter eclipse assays to independently identify bacterial avirulence genes, is rapid, highly reproducible, and scalable for high-throughput screens of multiple cultivars or genotypes. Application of these methodologies will allow rapid and high-throughput identification of resistant cultivars and the bacterial avirulence genes they recognize, facilitating resistance gene discovery for plant breeding programs.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Polyploidy is a key driver of significant evolutionary changes in plant species. The genus Actinidia (kiwifruit) exhibits multiple ploidy levels, which contribute to novel fruit traits, high yields and resistance to the canker-causing dieback disease incited by Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa) biovar 3. However, the genetic mechanism for resistance to Psa observed in polyploid kiwifruit is not yet known. In this study we performed detailed genetic analysis of a tetraploid Actinidia chinensis var. chinensis population derived from a cross between a female parent that exhibits weak tolerance to Psa and a highly Psa-resistant male parent. We used the capture-sequencing approach across the whole kiwifruit genome and generated the first ultra-dense maps in a tetraploid kiwifruit population. We located quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for Psa resistance on these maps. Our approach to QTL mapping is based on the use of identity-by-descent trait mapping, which allowed us to relate the contribution of specific alleles from their respective homologues in the male and female parent, to the control of Psa resistance in the progeny. We identified genes in the diploid reference genome whose function is suggested to be involved in plant defense, which underly the QTLs, including receptor-like kinases. Our study is the first to cast light on the genetics of a polyploid kiwifruit and suggest a plausible mechanism for Psa resistance in this species.

Pseudomonas syringae pv. actinidiae (Psa) biovar 3, a virulent, canker-inducing pathogen is an economic threat to the kiwifruit ( Actinidia spp.) industry worldwide. The commercially grown diploid (2×) A. chinensis var. chinensis is more susceptible to Psa than tetraploid and hexaploid kiwifruit. However information on the genetic loci modulating Psa resistance in kiwifruit is not available. Here we report mapping of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) regulating resistance to Psa in a diploid kiwifruit population, derived from a cross between an elite Psa-susceptible 'Hort16A' and a resistant male breeding parent P1. Using high-density genetic maps and intensive phenotyping, we identified a single QTL for Psa resistance on Linkage Group (LG) 27 of 'Hort16A' revealing 16-19% phenotypic variance and candidate alleles for susceptibility and resistance at this loci. In addition, six minor QTLs were identified in P1 on distinct LGs, exerting 4-9% variance. Resistance in the F1 population is improved by additive effects from 'Hort16A' and P1 QTLs providing evidence that divergent genetic pathways interact to combat the virulent Psa strain. Two different bioassays further identified new QTLs for tissue-specific responses to Psa. The genetic marker at LG27 QTL was further verified for association with Psa resistance in diploid Actinidia chinensis populations. Transcriptome analysis of Psa-resistant and susceptible genotypes in field revealed hallmarks of basal defense and provided candidate RNA-biomarkers for screening for Psa resistance in greenhouse conditions., Competing Interests: Conflict of interestThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest., (© The Author(s) 2019.)

In apple, the MYB transcription factor MYB10 controls the accumulation of anthocyanins. MYB10 is able to auto-activate its expression by binding its own promoter at a specific motif, the R1 motif. In some apple accessions a natural mutation, termed R6, has more copies of this motif within the MYB10 promoter resulting in stronger auto-activation and elevated anthocyanins. Here we show that other anthocyanin-related MYBs selected from apple, pear, strawberry, petunia, kiwifruit and Arabidopsis are able to activate promoters containing the R6 motif. To examine the specificity of this motif, members of the R2R3 MYB family were screened against a promoter harboring the R6 mutation. Only MYBs from subgroups 5 and 6 activate expression by binding the R6 motif, with these MYBs sharing conserved residues in their R2R3 DNA binding domains. Insertion of the apple R6 motif into orthologous promoters of MYB10 in pear ( PcMYB10 ) and Arabidopsis ( AtMY75 ) elevated anthocyanin levels. Introduction of the R6 motif into the promoter region of an anthocyanin biosynthetic enzyme F3'5'H of kiwifruit imparts regulation by MYB10. This results in elevated levels of delphinidin in both tobacco and kiwifruit. Finally, an R6 motif inserted into the promoter the vitamin C biosynthesis gene GDP-L-Gal phosphorylase increases vitamin C content in a MYB10-dependent manner. This motif therefore provides a tool to re-engineer novel MYB-regulated responses in plants.

Background: PTI and ETI are the two major defence mechanisms in plants. ETI is triggered by the detection of pathogen effectors, or their activity, in the plant cell and most of the time involves internal receptors known as resistance (R) genes. An increasing number of R genes responsible for recognition of specific effectors have been characterised over the years; however, methods to identify R genes are often challenging and cannot always be translated to crop plants., Results: We present a novel method to identify R genes responsible for the recognition of specific effectors that trigger a hypersensitive response (HR) in Nicotiana benthamiana . This method is based on the genome-wide identification of most of the potential R genes of N. benthamiana and a systematic silencing of these potential R genes in a simple transient expression assay. A hairpin-RNAi library was constructed covering 345 R gene candidates of N. benthamiana . This library was then validated using several previously described R genes. Our approach indeed confirmed that Prf, NRC2a/b and NRC3 are required for the HR that is mediated in N. benthamiana by Pto/avrPto (prf, NRC2a/b and NRC3) and by Cf4/avr4 (NRC2a/b and NRC3). We also confirmed that NRG1, in association with N, is required for the Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)-mediated HR in N. benthamiana ., Conclusion: We present a novel approach combining bioinformatics, multiple-gene silencing and transient expression assay screening to rapidly identify one-to-one relationships between pathogen effectors and host R genes in N. benthamiana . This approach allowed the identification of previously described R genes responsible for detection of avirulence determinants from Pseudomonas , Cladosporium and TMV, demonstrating that the method could be applied to any effectors/proteins originating from a broad range of plant pathogens that trigger an HR in N. benthamiana . Moreover, with the increasing availability of genome sequences from model and crop plants and pathogens, this approach could be implemented in other plants, accelerating the process of identification and characterization of novel resistance genes.

Apple (Malus × domestica) accumulates bioactive ursane-, oleanane-, and lupane-type triterpenes in its fruit cuticle, but their biosynthetic pathway is still poorly understood. We used a homology-based approach to identify and functionally characterize two new oxidosqualene cyclases (MdOSC4 and MdOSC5) and one cytochrome P450 (CYP716A175). The gene expression patterns of these enzymes and of previously described oxidosqualene cyclases were further studied in 20 apple cultivars with contrasting triterpene profiles. MdOSC4 encodes a multifunctional oxidosqualene cyclase producing an oleanane-type triterpene, putatively identified as germanicol, as well as β-amyrin and lupeol, in the proportion 82 : 14 : 4. MdOSC5 cyclizes 2,3-oxidosqualene into lupeol and β-amyrin at a ratio of 95 : 5. CYP716A175 catalyses the C-28 oxidation of α-amyrin, β-amyrin, lupeol and germanicol, producing ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, betulinic acid, and putatively morolic acid. The gene expression of MdOSC1 was linked to the concentrations of ursolic and oleanolic acid, whereas the expression of MdOSC5 was correlated with the concentrations of betulinic acid and its caffeate derivatives. Two new multifuntional triterpene synthases as well as a multifunctional triterpene C-28 oxidase were identified in Malus × domestica. This study also suggests that MdOSC1 and MdOSC5 are key genes in apple fruit triterpene biosynthesis., (© 2016 The Authors. New Phytologist © 2016 New Phytologist Trust.)

Key Message: The Md - MYB10 R6 gene from apple is capable of self-regulating in heterologous host species and enhancing anthocyanin pigmentation, but the activity of MYB10 is dependent on endogenous protein partners. Coloured foliage due to anthocyanin pigments (bronze/red/black) is an attractive trait that is often lacking in many bedding, ornamental and horticultural plants. Apples (Malus × domestica) containing an allelic variant of the anthocyanin regulator, Md-MYB10 R6 , are highly pigmented throughout the plant, due to autoregulation by MYB10 upon its own promoter. We investigated whether Md-MYB10 R6 from apple is capable of functioning within the heterologous host Petunia hybrida to generate plants with novel pigmentation patterns. The Md-MYB10 R6 transgene (MYB10-R6 pro :MYB10:MYB10 term ) activated anthocyanin synthesis when transiently expressed in Antirrhinum rosea (dorsea) petals and petunia leaf discs. Stable transgenic petunias containing Md-MYB10 R6 lacked foliar pigmentation but had coloured flowers, complementing the an2 phenotype of 'Mitchell' petunia. The absence of foliar pigmentation was due to the failure of the Md-MYB10 R6 gene to self-activate in vegetative tissues, suggesting that additional protein partners are required for Md-MYB10 to activate target genes in this heterologous system. In petunia flowers, where endogenous components including MYB-bHLH-WDR (MBW) proteins were present, expression of the Md-MYB10 R6 promoter was initiated, allowing auto-regulation to occur and activating anthocyanin production. Md-MYB10 is capable of operating within the petunia MBW gene regulation network that controls the expression of the anthocyanin biosynthesis genes, AN1 (bHLH) and MYBx (R3-MYB repressor) in petals.

The anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway is regulated by a transcription factor complex consisting of an R2R3 MYB, a bHLH, and a WD40. Although R2R3 MYBs belonging to the anthocyanin-activating class have been identified in many plants, and their role well elucidated, the subgroups of bHLH implicated in anthocyanin regulation seem to be more complex. It is not clear whether these potential bHLH partners are biologically interchangeable with redundant functions, or even if heterodimers are involved. In this study, AcMYB110, an R2R3 MYB isolated from kiwifruit (Actinidia sp.) showing a strong activation of the anthocyanin pathway in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) was used to examine the function of interacting endogenous bHLH partners. Constitutive expression of AcMYB110 in tobacco leaves revealed different roles for two bHLHs, NtAN1 and NtJAF13. A hierarchical mechanism is shown to control the regulation of transcription factors and consequently of the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway. Here, a model is proposed for the regulation of the anthocyanin pathway in Solanaceous plants in which AN1 is directly involved in the activation of the biosynthetic genes, whereas JAF13 is involved in the regulation of AN1 transcription., (© The Author 2015. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Experimental Biology.)

Plants require sophisticated regulatory mechanisms to ensure the degree of anthocyanin pigmentation is appropriate to myriad developmental and environmental signals. Central to this process are the activity of MYB-bHLH-WD repeat (MBW) complexes that regulate the transcription of anthocyanin genes. In this study, the gene regulatory network that regulates anthocyanin synthesis in petunia (Petunia hybrida) has been characterized. Genetic and molecular evidence show that the R2R3-MYB, MYB27, is an anthocyanin repressor that functions as part of the MBW complex and represses transcription through its C-terminal EAR motif. MYB27 targets both the anthocyanin pathway genes and basic-helix-loop-helix (bHLH) ANTHOCYANIN1 (AN1), itself an essential component of the MBW activation complex for pigmentation. Other features of the regulatory network identified include inhibition of AN1 activity by the competitive R3-MYB repressor MYBx and the activation of AN1, MYB27, and MYBx by the MBW activation complex, providing for both reinforcement and feedback regulation. We also demonstrate the intercellular movement of the WDR protein (AN11) and R3-repressor (MYBx), which may facilitate anthocyanin pigment pattern formation. The fundamental features of this regulatory network in the Asterid model of petunia are similar to those in the Rosid model of Arabidopsis thaliana and are thus likely to be widespread in the Eudicots.

Consumers of whole foods, such as fruits, demand consistent high quality and seek varieties with enhanced health properties, convenience or novel taste. We have raised the polyphenolic content of apple by genetic engineering of the anthocyanin pathway using the apple transcription factor MYB10. These apples have very high concentrations of foliar, flower and fruit anthocyanins, especially in the fruit peel. Independent lines were examined for impacts on tree growth, photosynthesis and fruit characteristics. Fruit were analysed for changes in metabolite and transcript levels. Fruit were also used in taste trials to study the consumer perception of such a novel apple. No negative taste attributes were associated with the elevated anthocyanins. Modification with this one gene provides near isogenic material and allows us to examine the effects on an established cultivar, with a view to enhancing consumer appeal independently of other fruit qualities., (© 2012 The Authors Plant Biotechnology Journal © 2012 Society for Experimental Biology, Association of Applied Biologists and Blackwell Publishing Ltd.)

Anthocyanin accumulation is coordinated in plants by a number of conserved transcription factors. In apple (Malus × domestica), an R2R3 MYB transcription factor has been shown to control fruit flesh and foliage anthocyanin pigmentation (MYB10) and fruit skin color (MYB1). However, the pattern of expression and allelic variation at these loci does not explain all anthocyanin-related apple phenotypes. One such example is an open-pollinated seedling of cv Sangrado that has green foliage and develops red flesh in the fruit cortex late in maturity. We used methods that combine plant breeding, molecular biology, and genomics to identify duplicated MYB transcription factors that could control this phenotype. We then demonstrated that the red-flesh cortex phenotype is associated with enhanced expression of MYB110a, a paralog of MYB10. Functional characterization of MYB110a showed that it was able to up-regulate anthocyanin biosynthesis in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). The chromosomal location of MYB110a is consistent with a whole-genome duplication event that occurred during the evolution of apple within the Maloideae family. Both MYB10 and MYB110a have conserved function in some cultivars, but they differ in their expression pattern and response to fruit maturity.

The pentacyclic triterpenes, in particular ursolic acid and oleanolic acid and their derivatives, exist abundantly in the plant kingdom, where they are well known for their anti-inflammatory, antitumour and antimicrobial properties. α-Amyrin and β-amyrin are the precursors of ursolic and oleanolic acids, respectively, formed by concerted cyclization of squalene epoxide by a complex synthase reaction. We identified three full-length expressed sequence tag sequences in cDNA libraries constructed from apple (Malus × domestica 'Royal Gala') that were likely to encode triterpene synthases. Two of these expressed sequence tag sequences were essentially identical (> 99% amino acid similarity; MdOSC1 and MdOSC3). MdOSC1 and MdOSC2 were expressed by transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves and by expression in the yeast Pichia methanolica. The resulting products were analysed by GC and GC-MS. MdOSC1 was shown to be a mixed amyrin synthase (a 5 : 1 ratio of α-amyrin to β-amyrin). MdOSC1 is the only triterpene synthase so far identified in which the level of α-amyrin produced is > 80% of the total product and is, therefore, primarily an α-amyrin synthase. No product was evident for MdOSC2 when expressed either transiently or in yeast, suggesting that this putative triterpene synthase is either encoded by a pseudogene or does not express well in these systems. Transcript expression analysis in Royal Gala indicated that the genes are mostly expressed in apple peel, and that the MdOSC2 expression level was much lower than that of MdOSC1 and MdOSC3 in all the tissues tested. Amyrin content analysis was undertaken by LC-MS, and demonstrated that levels and ratios differ between tissues, but that the true consequence of synthase activity is reflected in the ursolic/oleanolic acid content and in further triterpenoids derived from them. Phylogenetic analysis placed the three triterpene synthase sequences with other triterpene synthases that encoded either α-amyrin and/or β-amyrin synthase. MdOSC1 and MdOSC3 clustered with the multifunctional triterpene synthases, whereas MdOSC2 was most similar to the β-amyrin synthases., (© 2011 The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited. Journal compilation © 2011 FEBS.)

Mutations in the genes encoding for either the biosynthetic or transcriptional regulation of the anthocyanin pathway have been linked to color phenotypes. Generally, this is a loss of function resulting in a reduction or a change in the distribution of anthocyanin. Here, we describe a rearrangement in the upstream regulatory region of the gene encoding an apple (Malus x domestica) anthocyanin-regulating transcription factor, MYB10. We show that this modification is responsible for increasing the level of anthocyanin throughout the plant to produce a striking phenotype that includes red foliage and red fruit flesh. This rearrangement is a series of multiple repeats, forming a minisatellite-like structure that comprises five direct tandem repeats of a 23-bp sequence. This MYB10 rearrangement is present in all the red foliage apple varieties and species tested but in none of the white fleshed varieties. Transient assays demonstrated that the 23-bp sequence motif is a target of the MYB10 protein itself, and the number of repeat units correlates with an increase in transactivation by MYB10 protein. We show that the repeat motif is capable of binding MYB10 protein in electrophoretic mobility shift assays. Taken together, these results indicate that an allelic rearrangement in the promoter of MYB10 has generated an autoregulatory locus, and this autoregulation is sufficient to account for the increase in MYB10 transcript levels and subsequent ectopic accumulation of anthocyanins throughout the plant.