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There is limited research available on safe medication management practices in emergency medical services (EMS) practice, with most evidence-based medication safety guidelines based on research in nursing, operating theater and pharmacy settings. Prevention of errors requires recognition of contributing factors across the spectrum from the organizational level to procedural elements and patient characteristics. Evidence is inconsistent regarding the incidence of medication errors and multiple sources also state that errors are under-reported, making the true magnitude of the problem difficult to quantify. Definitions of error also vary, with the specific context of medication errors in prehospital practice yet to be established. The objective of this review is to identify the factors influencing the occurrence of medication errors by EMS personnel in the prehospital environment.The review included both qualitative and quantitative research involving interventions or phenomena related to medication safety or medication error by EMS personnel in the prehospital environment. A search of multiple databases was conducted to identify studies meeting these inclusion criteria. All studies selected were assessed for methodological quality; however, this was not used as a basis for exclusion. Each stage of study selection, appraisal and data extraction was conducted by two independent reviewers, with a third reviewer deciding any unresolved conflicts. The review follows a convergent integrated approach, conducting a single qualitative synthesis of qualitative and "qualitized" quantitative data.Fifty-six articles were included in the review, with case reports and qualitative studies being the most frequent study types. Qualitative analysis revealed seven major themes: organizational factors (with reporting as a sub-theme), equipment/medications, environmental factors, procedure-related factors, communication, patient-related factors (with pediatrics as a sub-theme) and cognitive factors. Both contributing factors and protective factors were identified.The body of evidence regarding medication errors is heterogenous and limited in both quantity and quality. Multiple factors influence medication error occurrence; knowledge of these is necessary to mitigate the risk of errors. Medication error incidence is difficult to quantify due to inconsistent measure, definitions and contexts of research conducted to date. Further research is required to quantify the prevalence of identified factors in specific practice settings.

Purpose: The research applies a multidisciplinary perspective to create knowledge and insight about the opportunities that digital game design principles offer to physical education (PE) pedagogy. Methods: Data were initially collected through an appreciative inquiry (AI). AI offers an alternative research perspective to critical theory that has dominated the investigation of the work of PE teachers. This study uniquely used AI with a narrative approach and multidisciplinary analysis to examine two teachers’ use of digital game design pedagogy in PE. Results: It was found that the teachers were motivated to use digital game design principles to provide students with means to solve problems, manage learning motivations, evaluate progress, and gain control over their learning in ways that are not normally associated with the common PE method. Conclusion: The two examples provided illustrate the generative potential of AI research combined with a multidisciplinary perspective directed at examples of pedagogical change in PE.

Purpose: In response to the limitations with what has been termed a “traditional” Physical Education method, in the last decade Models-Based Practice (MBP) has emerged as an alternative. However, these limitations were recognized by Mosston in 1966 and from which The Spectrum of Teaching Styles (The Spectrum) was presented as a means toward a more obvious educative focus in Physical Education. We propose that The Spectrum provides a bridge between the hope and happening of MBP suggested by Casey and colleagues. Method: Using a qualitative narrative approach, we construct a fictional discussion between two academics (one from a country with centralized, mandated curriculum and one without) through which to navigate the mythical island of quality Physical Education in order to analytically frame The Spectrum and the “happening” of teacher’s implementation of MBP. Use of a fictional dialogue as a qualitative instrument enabled us to be provocative through the posing of questions in a novel fashion. Results: We suggest adopting a nonversus perspective reorients the view of model fidelity and, The Spectrum provides the “how” or micropedagogies to close the gap between the “hope” and the “happening.” Conclusion: This conversation is timely considering reservations about the successfulness of “second-generation” MBP exist in the literature and evidence of the continuation of the historically common Physical Education method despite its well-recognized limitations.

This chapter examines how The Spectrum allows the coaching models to be viewed in terms of the decisions being made to identify the complexities of the coaching model and to test the model’s assumptions. It do this by viewing two game-based coaching approach (GBA) scenarios and place them on The Spectrum to identify the intricacies and complexities of the GBAs. The Spectrum’s structure is underpinned by the concept that every deliberate act of teaching is a result of a previous decision. Mosston suggested that these numerous decisions could be made in three places: the pre-impact set, the impact set and the post-impact set. Direct Instruction is sometimes labelled ‘traditional’ coaching or the historically ‘common’ coaching approach. It is typically characterised as the coach-centred, direct or command instruction, focused on replication of highly prescribed movement models and therefore sometimes also called a technical model of coaching.

The message of physical education (PE) has been one of a ‘contested ground’ with regular debate around its purpose, alongside conceptual confusions. A major channel of communication that strongly influences public perceptions is through mainstream media, yet how media platforms have reported on the PE profession has received a scarcity of research attention. The aim of this research was to investigate international media reporting of PE over a five-year period. To generate key concepts and themes emerging from the international PE media (English speaking), researchers conducted a Leximancer text mining analysis of media articles published via the Google News function between January 2013 and March 2018. A PE for health discourse was evident from across the international media reporting of PE with regular concepts and themes focused upon the ‘physical’ including activity, health, obesity, physical activity and exercise. It was also evident that there were clear links between the concept of ‘physical education’ with regulatory concepts such as ‘requirements, reporting and law’. Notable thematic absences related to how PE goals can be met through teaching, learning and programming. Unpacking conceptual and thematic insight into how the PE profession has been reported into the public sphere sheds light on key trends, discourses and influences that are being communicated to the public across global contexts.

Physical education scholars have identified a number of factors that affect how teachers translate policy into practice. It is becoming clear that to create learning experiences that reflect the in...

Game-based pedagogical approaches for games and sport teaching have been distinguished by some authors through the more prominent emphasis on guided discovery teaching and player reflective thinking than what occurs in the more historically common sport-as-sport techniques approach, which is exemplified by a ‘transmission’ method of instruction. In this chapter, we suggest that rather than be seen as competing approaches, game-based approaches can be viewed as a ‘toolkit’ of instructional styles governed by a fundamental proposition – pedagogical decision making. We examine a game-based coaching episode and identify the decisions being made between the coach and players using the Spectrum of Teaching Styles (Mosston & Ashworth, 2008). By doing this, we detail important pedagogical concepts and unify pedagogical decision making that takes place when sport coaching is aimed across the ‘discovery barrier’ and into an intentionally designed space to develop ‘thinking players’.

This chapter makes a case for why a common language is necessary for pedagogy to move forward by briefly discussing what happens when a common language is absent. The chapter suggests that knowledge of teaching styles, and more importantly the ability to use them, is vitally important in achieving the goals of syllabus writers. The chapter provides examples of how knowledge of The Spectrum is helpful to teachers, educators, curriculum and syllabus writers, professional development providers and pre-service teacher educators as it can describe what teachers’ behaviour would look like using specific styles. It provides practical examples of how The Spectrum has been to analyse and interrogate the teaching behaviour of physical education teachers and coaches.

With over 100 published research initiatives, Mosston and Ashworth’s Spectrum of Teaching Styles is one of the most researched theories in relation to physical education pedagogy. In most cases, the claims in connection to The Spectrum have been validated, demonstrating that reproduction and production clusters are effective in promoting motor skill acquisition in school-age and college-age students. Learners taught using Reciprocal Style, Self-check and Inclusion Styles have revealed higher gains of knowledge compared to learners who receive instruction that does not require them to formally assess performance. Finally, increased levels of autonomy and perceived control, along with higher levels of physical and cognitive involvement, have additionally been reported by students educated using the Reciprocal Style (Goldberger, Ashworth & Byra, 2009). Despite this, The Spectrum may seem foreign and complex to many teachers with its 11 teaching styles. This chapter introduces The Spectrum and the chapters that follow which present examples of how a variety of teachers, coaches and academics have employed The Spectrum by applying their own perspective to it. Rather than it just being a theory, the contributing authors have ‘breathed life’ into it by incorporating it in their own way in diverse environments.

A constraints-led approach for games and sport teaching has been distinguished by some authors through the more prominent emphasis on implicit learning and discovery teaching as a non-linear pedagogy. In this chapter we posit that the pedagogical acts of a constraints-led approach can be viewed through a fundamental proposition – pedagogical decision making. We use the non-verses concept of The Spectrum while identifying the decisions being made between the teacher and student/s to examine two constraints-led learning episodes. This allows both episodes to be seen from the lens of pedagogical decision making.

IntroductionThere is limited reliable research available on medication errors in relation to paramedic practice, with most evidence-based medication safety guidelines based on research in nursing, operating theatre and pharmacy settings. While similarities exist, evidence suggests that the prehospital environment is distinctly different in many aspects. The prevention of errors requires attention to factors from the organisational and regulatory level down to specific tasks and patient characteristics. The evidence available suggests errors may occur in up to 12.76% of medication administrations in some prehospital settings. With multiple sources stating that the errors are under-reported, this represents significant potential for patient harm. This review will seek to identify the factors influencing the occurrence of medication errors by paramedics in the prehospital environment.Methods and analysisThe review will include qualitative and quantitative studies involving interventions or phenomena regarding medication errors or medication safety relating to paramedics (including emergency medical technicians and other prehospital care providers) within the prehospital environment. A search will be conducted using MEDLINE (Ovid), EBSCOhost Megafile Search, the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors trial registry, Google Scholar and the OpenGrey database to identify studies meeting this inclusion criteria, with initial searches commencing 30 September 2019. Studies selected will undergo assessment of methodological quality, with data to be extracted from all studies irrespective of quality. Each stage of study selection, appraisal and data extraction will be conducted by two reviewers, with a third reviewer deciding any unresolved conflicts. The review will follow a convergent integrated approach, conducting a single qualitative synthesis of qualitative and ‘qualitised’ quantitative data.Ethics and disseminationNo ethical approval was required for this review. Findings from this systematic review will be disseminated via publications, reports and conference presentations.

Although some may think of game-based teaching as a ‘tactical’ teaching style instructionally distinctive by an emphasis on guided discovery, this article shows that it is more accurate to think of...

Prior to 2005, it was not known what teaching styles were used for physical education (PE) in the state of Queensland, Australia. In order to explore the effect that teachers’ beliefs about teaching styles influenced their self-reported use, Cothran et al. (Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 76(2), 193–201, 2005) conducted a study in which teachers were asked to complete a questionnaire that presented various teaching style scenarios based on the 11 styles identified by Mosston and Ashworth (2008). This research included Queensland teachers of both primary and secondary PE, but did not confirm through observation the accuracy of the self-reporting. To address this gap, this paper presents the findings of observations of teaching styles used by nine teachers of Queensland senior PE across three 1-h lessons of a 9-week unit, to determine whether syllabus outcomes were being met. The teachers had all completed 4-year training, with three having 0–4 years of teaching experience, three with 5–10 years, and three with 11 years or more. The nine participants’ lessons (n = 27 lessons) were coded by two coders using Ashworth’s (2004) Identification of Classroom Teaching-learning Styles and descriptors of teaching styles from (Cothran et al. 2005) Teaching Physical Education (Mosston and Ashworth 2002). Inter-observer reliability over the 27 lessons was 99%. The data were analysed via an SPSS version 21 command to determine the means and frequency distribution of the styles indicated within the Mosston and Ashworth (2008) Spectrum. The senior PE teachers participating in this study failed to demonstrate the use of a range of styles in their lessons, in spite of the Queensland Senior Physical Education Syllabus (2004) detailing a specific range of styles to be used. This suggests that the aims, objectives and outcomes (including higher-order thinking skills) as described in the syllabus were not being met.

The main purpose of this paper was to present the findings of research completed on the reported teaching styles (based on the work of Mosston and Ashworth 2002) that 110 teachers of Queensland Senior Physical Education believed they used, and to establish how often they believed they used them. Participants included 110 secondary school physical education teachers of years 11 and 12 in the Australian state of Queensland. Data were collected using an adaption of the Kulinna et al. (Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 7(1): 25–41, 2003) and the Cothran et al. (Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 76(2) 193–201, 2005) instrument which required participants to read 11 scenarios describing the teaching styles from the Spectrum of Teaching Styles introduced by Mosstion and Ashworth above. The teachers in this study reported using a range of styles from both the reproduction and production clusters. The findings of this study indicate that numerous factors may influence teachers' reported use of teaching styles, and that further research is necessary to confirm if teachers are able to accurately report on the teaching styles they use.

This study analyzes the 2004 Queensland Physical Education (PE) Senior Syllabus to ascertain to what extent it is developing physically educated students. The 2004 QSPES is a fundamental document relevant to the teaching of PE (in Years 11 and 12 of high school) in the Australian state of Queensland. Kirk’s (1988) notion of a physically educated person being an intelligent performer guides the research and frames the discussion. The 2004 QSPES syllabus was examined via content inquiry. The 2004 QSPES included concepts such as intelligent performance and complex environments, and it suggested teaching styles to meet these concept developments. It was found that the development of physically educated students was ill-defined, contradictory, and questionable. It is likely that teachers will have trouble applying, teaching, and assessing the concept of intelligent performance.

Many physical education curriculum frameworks include statements about the inclusion of critical inquiry processes and the development of creativity and problem-solving skills. The learning environment created by physical education can encourage or limit the application and development of the learners' cognitive resources for critical and creative thinking. This article presents the argument for critical and creative thinking in physical education, and then describes and explains pedagogical perspectives and teaching tools that foster student inquiry, creativity and problem solving in physical education. The ideas and examples presented are consistent with the expectations of contemporary curricula frameworks, such as the SHAPE America National Standards for K–12 Physical Education, the International Baccalaureate Middle Years Program, and the Australian Curriculum for Health and Physical Education.

During the late 1960s and into the 1970s game-based approaches to sport teaching and coaching emerged in scholarly literature on sport and physical education teaching. Game based pedagogical approaches for games and sport teaching have been distinguished by some authors through the more prominent emphasis on guided discovery teaching and student/athlete reflective thinking than what occurs in the more historically common sport-as-sport techniques approach typified by a demonstration-replication, or ‘transmission’, method of instruction. However, guided discovery is also associated with another teaching approach that emerged in the 1960s, Style F of Mosston’s Spectrum of Teaching Styles. In this paper we posit that rather than be seen as competing approaches, game-based approaches and The Spectrum of Teaching Styles should be seen as complementary as both are governed by a fundamental proposition – pedagogical decision making. In particular, due to the Spectrum of Teaching Styles non-versus approach, it is theoretically impossible/contradictory for the Spectrum to be in opposition to or compete against any pedagogical approach. Our purpose is to examine two Game Sense learning episodes and to identify the decisions being made between the teacher and student/s. This will then allow these two Game Sense learning episodes to be placed on the Spectrum of Teaching Styles. By doing this it will detail important pedagogical concepts and unify pedagogical decision making that take place when sport and games teaching is taken across the ‘discovery barrier’ and into an intentionally designed space to develop ‘thinking players’. In the Australian educational landscape, this discussion is timely given the Australian Curriculum Health and Physical Education key ideas to focus on both content and pedagogies that are educatively focused with an inquiry approach.

Teaching styles are valued by educators for what they can achieve. In undertaking research in the area of teaching styles, we set out to explore not only specific research questions but also some beliefs about what to expect of teachers, but as shall be discussed, these are ‘beliefs’ that modulate into ‘myths’. The findings of the study challenged the assumptions of the study questions and the ‘truth’ about teaching styles actually used by teachers. In recent times, curriculum documents by governments in places such as Scotland, England and Queensland (a state in Australia) have called for a range of teaching styles or approaches to meet the variety of learner differences and allow students to make more independent decision-making in physical education (Hardy & Mawer, 1999). Prior to 2005, no research had been conducted on the teaching styles that teachers of physical education use in Queensland, among this set of international priorities. Cothran et al. (2005) completed a study titled A Cross-Cultural Investigation of the Use of Teaching Styles, which presented a questionnaire to teachers (including in Queensland) with scenarios of teaching styles based on the 11 styles identified by Mosston and Ashworth (2002). The study outlined here was designed to identify the teaching styles (based on the work of Mosston & Ashworth, 2002) that 110 teachers of Queensland Senior Physical Education believed they used and then sought to confirm the use of these teaching styles by observation of the lessons of nine volunteer participants across three of their lessons of Senior Physical Education in a unit of work.