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The chemical agent sulfur mustard (SM) causes erythema, skin blisters, ulcerations, and delayed wound healing. It is accepted that the underlying molecular toxicology is based on DNA alkylation. With an expected delay, DNA damage causes impairment of protein biosynthesis and disturbance of cell division. However, using the cockroach model Blaptica dubia, the presented results show that alkylating compounds provoke immediate behavior responses along with fast changes in the electrical field potential (EFP) of neurons, suggesting that lesions of DNA are probably not the only effect of alkylating compounds. Blaptica dubia was challenged with SM or 2-chloroethyl-ethyl sulfide (CEES). Acute toxicity was objectified by a disability score. Physiological behavior responses (antennae pullback reflex, escape attempts, and grooming) were monitored after exposure. To estimate the impact of alkylating agents on neuronal activity, EFP recordings of the antennae and the thoracic ganglion were performed. After contact to neat SM, a pullback reflex of the antennae was the first observation. Subsequently, a striking escape behavior occured which was characterized by persistent movement of the legs. In addition, an instantaneous processing of the electrical firing pattern from the antennae to the descending ganglia was detectable. Remarkably, comparing the toxicity of the applied alkylating agents, effects induced by CEES were much more pronounced compared to SM. In summary, our findings document immediate effects of B. dubia after exposure to alkylating substances. These fast responses cannot be interpreted as a consequence of DNA alkylation. Therefore, the dogma that DNA alkylation is the exclusive cause for SM toxicity has to be questioned. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) uses modulated currents to evoke neuronal activity in vestibular endorgans in the absence of head motion. GVS is typically used for a characterization of vestibular pathologies; for studies on the vestibular influence of gaze, posture, and locomotion; and for deciphering the sensory-motor transformation underlying these behaviors. At variance with the widespread use of this method, basic aspects such as the activated cellular substrate at the sensory periphery or the comparability to motion-induced neuronal activity patterns are still disputed. Using semi-intact preparations of Xenopus laevis tadpoles, we determined the cellular substrate and the spatiotemporal specificity of GVS-evoked responses and compared sinusoidal GVS-induced activity patterns with motion-induced responses in all neuronal elements along the vestibulo-ocular pathway. As main result, we found that, despite the pharmacological block of glutamatergic hair cell transmission by combined bath-application of NMDA (7-chloro-kynurenic acid) and AMPA (CNQX) receptor blockers, GVS-induced afferent spike activity persisted. However, the amplitude modulation was reduced by ~30%, suggesting that both hair cells and vestibular afferent fibers are normally recruited by GVS. Systematic alterations of electrode placement with respect to bilateral semicircular canal pairs or alterations of the bipolar stimulus phase timing yielded unique activity patterns in extraocular motor nerves, compatible with a spatially and temporally specific activation of vestibulo-ocular reflexes in distinct planes. Despite the different GVS electrode placement in semi-intact X. laevis preparations and humans and the more global activation of vestibular endorgans by the latter approach, this method is suitable to imitate head/body motion in both circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anesthetics are drugs that reversibly relieve pain, decrease body movements and suppress neuronal activity. Most drugs only cover one of these effects; for instance, analgesics relieve pain but fail to block primary fiber responses to noxious stimuli. Alternately, paralytic drugs block synaptic transmission at neuromuscular junctions, thereby effectively paralyzing skeletal muscles. Thus, both analgesics and paralytics each accomplish one effect, but fail to singularly account for all three. Tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) is structurally similar to benzocaine, a typical anesthetic for anamniote vertebrates, but contains a sulfate moiety rendering this drug more hydrophilic. MS-222 is used as anesthetic in poikilothermic animals such as fish and amphibians. However, it is often argued that MS-222 is only a hypnotic drug and its ability to block neural activity has been questioned. This prompted us to evaluate the potency and dynamics of MS-222-induced effects on neuronal firing of sensory and motor nerves alongside a defined motor behavior in semi-intact in vitro preparations of Xenopus laevis tadpoles. Electrophysiological recordings of extraocular motor discharge and both spontaneous and evoked mechanosensory nerve activity were measured before, during and after administration of MS-222, then compared to benzocaine and a known paralytic, pancuronium. Both MS-222 and benzocaine, but not pancuronium caused a dose-dependent, reversible blockade of extraocular motor and sensory nerve activity. These results indicate that MS-222 as benzocaine blocks the activity of both sensory and motor nerves compatible with the mechanistic action of effective anesthetics, indicating that both caine-derivates are effective as single-drug anesthetics for surgical interventions in anamniotes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]