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The majority of theory and research on empowering leadership to date has focused on how empowering leader behaviors influence employees, portraying those behaviors as almost exclusively beneficial. We depart from this predominant consensus to focus on the potential detriments of empowering leadership for employees. Drawing from the social cognitive theory of morality, we propose that empowering leadership can unintentionally increase employees' unethical pro-organizational behavior (UPB), and that it does so by increasing their levels of moral disengagement. Specifically, we propose that hindrance stressors create a reversing effect, such that empowering leadership increases (vs. decreases) moral disengagement when hindrance stressors are higher (vs. lower). Ultimately, we argue for a positive or negative indirect effect of empowering leadership on UPB through moral disengagement. We find support for our predictions in both a time-lagged field study (Study 1) and a scenario-based experiment using an anagram cheating task (Study 2). We thus highlight the impact that empowering leadership can have on unethical behavior, providing answers to both why and when the dark side of empowering leadership behavior occurs. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The interest of organization and management researchers in the resilience concept has steadily grown in recent years. Although there is consensus about the importance of resilience in organizational contexts, many important research questions remain. For example, it is still largely unclear how resilience functions at different levels of analysis in organizations and how these various levels interact. In this special issue, we seek to advance knowledge about the complex resilience construct. For laying a foundation, in this editorial introduction we offer an integrative literature review of previous resilience research at three different levels of analysis (i.e., individual, team, and organization). Furthermore, we demonstrate what is already known about resilience as a multilevel construct and interactions among different resilience levels. Based on the results of our literature review, we identify salient research gaps and highlight some of the more promising areas for future research on resilience. Finally, we present an overview of the articles in this special issue and highlight their contributions in light of the gaps identified herein.

Do traditional, gender-based expectations and widely disseminated notions of African culture apply to preferred leadership behaviors in African nations? This study examines leadership preferences o...

This chapter examines the impact of bad leadership on organizational effectiveness. The authors first define bad leadership and then differentiate between its two forms, toxic and ineffectual. Looking more closely at toxic leadership, they discuss toxic leaders themselves and situational factors. Turning to ineffectual leadership, the authors describe its various forms, such as managerial incompetence, poor person/job fit, commitment to lost causes, a sense of invulnerability, one-hit wonders, overly generalized strategic decision-making, and entrenched heir apparents. The authors then discuss the macro-effects of bad leadership, focusing primarily on senior leaders but also middle and lower-level managers. The next topic discussed is why leaders may be bad, such as narcissism, hubris, and CEO predecessors. The next section describes how bad leaders are selected in the first place, such as political skills and impression management. The authors focus next on how organizations can avoid selecting, hiring, or promoting bad leaders. The chapter concludes by summarizing directions for future research.

There has been increasing attention to examining informal (i.e., horizontal), rather than formal (i.e., vertical), approaches to leadership over the last several decades, enhancing our understanding of the dynamics of emergent leadership. Although such research has led to a growing comprehension of the process of, and factors involved in, leader emergence, the literature still lacks theoretical coherence. Without a clear way to connect and synthesize extant research, the time is right for a much-needed comprehensive review. To address this issue, we examine emergent leadership research to date with the aim of developing a concise overview and comprehensive framework of the literature. In doing so, we (1) review past conceptualizations, establish a clear, common definition, and compare emergent leadership to other related constructs; (2) review previous operationalizations and provide recommendations for future measurement; (3) develop a comprehensive organizing framework of existing research; and (4) use our organizing framework, as well as three existing theories related to emergent leadership, to generate a series of detailed suggestions for future research for the next decade and beyond.

In this introductory article for the special issue of Journal of Management Studies, entitled ‘Leading Entrepreneurial Ventures: Individual and Team‐Based Perspectives’, we leverage insights in the extant literature as well as those insights developed by the authors of the four articles published in response to our call for papers. Overall, we explore multiple nuanced questions with regards to research on entrepreneurship, research on leadership, and their intersection. Our goal is to begin to help guide research on entrepreneurship and leadership, and their intersection, for the next decade.

In today’s turbulent business environments, work teams frequently face a variety of adverse conditions and, as a result, can experience process breakdowns and performance declines. Despite existing...

Abstract. Drawing from the equity-equality paradigm and social interdependence theory, we examine cross-level effects of leader-member exchange (LMX) differentiation on both task performance and creativity using 461 team members and 98 team leaders in China. We demonstrate the paradoxical (i.e., positive and negative) effects of LMX differentiation in teams. Specifically, while LMX differentiation was positively, directly associated with task performance and creativity in more interdependent teams, it also had negative, indirect influences, through interactional justice climate, on these outcomes. Overall, in more interdependent teams, LMX differentiation had positive effects on employee performance-based outcomes, but in less interdependent teams, the effects were more negative. Our findings also provide practical implications for team governance.

In today's organizations, employees are often assigned as members of multiple teams simultaneously (i.e., multiple team membership), and yet we know little about important leadership and employee phenomena in such settings. Using a scenario-based experiment and 2 field studies of leaders and their employees in the People's Republic of China and the United States, we examined how empowering leadership exhibited by 2 different team leaders toward a single employee working on 2 different teams can spillover to affect that employee's psychological empowerment and subsequent proactivity across teams. Consistent across all 3 studies, we found that each of the team leaders' empowering leadership uniquely and positively influenced an employee's psychological empowerment and subsequent proactive behaviors. In the field studies, we further found that empowering leadership exhibited by one team leader influenced the psychological empowerment and proactive behaviors of their team member not only in that leader's team but also in the other team outside of that leader's stewardship. Finally, across studies, we found that empowering leadership exhibited on one team can substitute for lower levels of empowering leadership experienced in a different team led by a distinct leader. We discuss our contributions to the motivation, teams, and leadership literatures and provide practical guidance for leaders charged with managing employees that have multiple team memberships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

There is debate in the literature regarding when impression management motivates affiliative behavior (i.e., helping others) and how well individuals perform organizational tasks when the driving m...

The study of interaction effects is critical for creating, extending, and bounding theory in organizational research. Integrating and extending prior work, we present a taxonomy of two-way interaction effects that can guide organizational scholars toward clearer, more precise ways of developing theory, advancing hypotheses, and interpreting results. Specifically, we identify three primary interaction types, including strengthening, weakening, and reversing effects. In addition, we explore subcategories within these interaction types. Our review of articles published in leading management and applied psychology journals from 2009 to 2013 supports the generalizability of this framework. We offer specific recommendations for using this taxonomy to deliver more precise development, testing, and interpretation of interaction hypotheses.

Team innovation requires idea generating and idea implementing. In two studies, we examine how these team activities are affected by the extent to which members value traditionalism – that is, placing importance on preserving old ways of doing things over breaking precedent and forging new approaches. We proposed that higher average levels of team traditionalism would be negatively associated with idea generating but positively associated with idea implementing. Conversely, we proposed the opposite effects for diversity on team traditionalism. Further, we argued that these effects would be mediated by team process conflict because diversity on team traditionalism might make it more likely that members will debate what to retain versus newly adopt, and team agreement is more likely to occur when team members’ values are shared, rather than discrepant, with one another. Supporting our assertions, we found that whether traditionalism is an asset or liability for team innovation depends on whether (1) the average level (versus diversity) of team traditionalism is examined; and (2) idea generating versus idea implementing is of primary importance. Specifically, idea generating benefits from higher diversity on team traditionalism, whereas idea implementing benefits from higher average levels of team traditionalism. We discuss theoretical and practical implications.

Despite multiple high-profile calls—across decades and from multiple stakeholders—to address the widening gap between science and practice, the relevance of research conducted in the management dom...

Our 2006 Journal of International Business Studies article, “A Quarter Century of Culture’s Consequences: A Review of the Empirical Research Incorporating Hofstede’s Cultural Values Framework,” provided a comprehensive review of 180 empirical journal articles and edited volume chapters published between 1980 and June 2002 that incorporated Hofstede’s cross-cultural values framework. We examined empirical research that positioned culture as either a main or moderating effect. The review attempted to make sense of the almost quarter century of research examining the impact of culture at the individual, group/organization, and country levels. In the present commentary, we provide: (a) a summary of the progress that has been made in the intervening decade, and most importantly, (b) a new set of recommendations for the next decade to guide those wishing to study the role of national culture in organizations.

Using a cross-level design and relying on a contingency approach to understanding empowering leadership, we investigate the mediating role of individual-level psychological empowerment in the cross-level relationship between team-directed empowering leadership and two complementary forms of individual-level citizenship: affiliative organizational citizenship behavior and taking charge. We also investigate the moderating role of organizational support climate in the relationship between empowering leader behavior and these two forms of citizenship. Using data collected from 98 work teams in one large organization in China, in addition to support for the mediating role of psychological empowerment, we found a “double-edged” moderating effect for organizational support climate. For affiliative organizational citizenship behavior, and consistent with reciprocation perspectives posited by social exchange theory, results showed that the highest levels occurred when both empowering leadership behavior and organizational support climate were high. In contrast, for taking charge, and consistent with control theory, results showed that the highest levels occurred when empowering leadership behavior was high but when organizational support climate was low. Our findings highlight the counterintuitive notion that organizational support climate may not always have uniformly positive effects and also reinforce the importance of including both individual and work context factors when attempting to understand cross-level empowering leadership effects.

Team resilience research has burst onto the scene in recent years, and for good reason: today’s organizations are predominantly structured in teams, and these teams frequently face adversity and ex...

This introduction traces the disappearance of Chinese family businesses from 1949 to 1978, their revival since then, and their future challenges. It then summarizes the three papers included in this Special Issue and proposes an agenda for family business studies in China. The article first focuses on the nonmarket social and political network strategies that these family-centered business organizations have had to adopt in order to overcome the difficulties they faced in accessing opportunities and resources as a result of Chinese culture's traditional low esteem for merchants and the government's continuing preference for a state-dominated economy. Family firms have so far been able to grow disproportionately rapidly in China's economy because, by leveraging the shared interests and dedication of immediate and extended family members, they have been able to achieve lower cost and higher efficiency, respond quickly to market changes, and expand social and political networks. These nonmarket strategies, however, also have a dark side. Furthermore, as the liberalization of China's economy deepens, competition must rely critically on market strategies such as innovation, alliances, and internationalization. The proposed research agenda addresses these future challenges as well as some research questions unique to Chinese family businesses.

Understanding the influence of culture on business operations has been one of the most enduring components of international business (IB) and international management (IM) theorizing and empirical investigation. While several critiques and debates questioned the significant progress made in this domain, the special issue we introduce here is meant to demonstrate that further advancement on how we conceptualize and measure culture is not only needed, but also possible. We provide an overview of past and current approaches in the measurement of culture in IB/IM and the challenges associated with these approaches, and emphasize the important, yet insufficiently acknowledged, link between the theoretical conceptualization of culture and its measurement. We then introduce the four articles included in the special issue and highlight how they break away from the “addiction” to approaches that have been very useful in getting where we are today, but that might not always be useful in advancing knowledge beyond what we already know. Last but not the least, we offer our own perspective on promising directions in conceptually and methodologically rethinking the study of culture in IB and IM.

The leader–member exchange (LMX) literature argues that leaders develop different quality dyadic relationships with members in the same team (i.e., LMX differentiation). Research has generally not found support for a linear (i.e., main effect) relationship between LMX differentiation and team performance; rather, moderators typically determine whether the relationship is significantly positive or negative. Examining linear effect moderators alone, however, does not account for (a) potential curvilinear (i.e., inverted U-shaped) effects, (b) explanatory mechanisms of how LMX differentiation influences team performance, or (c) moderators of curvilinear effects. Integrating social identity theory with LMX differentiation research, we propose inverted U-shaped relationships between LMX differentiation and both team coordination (as a mediator) and team performance (as an outcome), and we examine both team size and team power distance orientation as moderators. Using data from 928 employees in 145 teams in 3 organizations, we found an inverted U-shaped relationship between LMX differentiation and team coordination, which, in turn, partially mediated LMX differentiation's inverted U-shaped relationship with team performance. Larger teams, or those with higher team power distance orientation, benefit more from LMX differentiation. By integrating social identity theory with LMX differentiation research, we enhance the understanding of the processes by, and conditions under, which LMX differentiation affects team performance both positively and negatively.

We review and synthesize the empowering leadership literature and, as a result, suggest two new provocative lines of inquiry directing future research. Based on a set of testable propositions, we first encourage researchers to answer the question of why empowering leadership occurs. Second, we encourage researchers to explore less positive and unintended, negative outcomes of empowering leadership. To identify opportunities for future work along these two lines, we use four theoretical perspectives including (1) person–situation interactions, (2) followership theory, (3) contingency approaches to leadership, and, (4) the too-much-of-a-good-thing effect. As a result, we set an agenda for the next decade of research on empowering leadership.

Despite the acknowledged existence of egoism and altruism in human behavior, existing work teams research has primarily used a descriptive approach to summarize team behavior that does not distinguish between egoism and altruism. And despite increasing interest in positive organizational behavior and psychology, much more attention has been paid to understanding team egoistic behavior than team altruistic behavior, thus leaving theories of team motivation incomplete. Extending research on team processes and individual-level citizenship behavior, we develop a multilevel, dynamic framework that comprehensively establishes the team altruism construct and identifies its key dimensions. We further discuss the unique motives and evolution of team altruism over time. As a result, our theoretical framework offers a new taxonomy of team altruism, distinguishes team altruism from other related constructs, advances research on team processes by delineating those that are more altruistic from those that are more egoi...

Organizations are increasingly making use of communities of practice (CoPs) as a way of leveraging the dispersed knowledge and expertise of their employees. One important way in which CoPs are predicted to benefit organizations is by facilitating the transfer of best practices. In this study, we examined the impact of the introduction of global CoPs on changes made to operational procedures in three refineries operated by a multinational company over a period of more than 5 years. We used a Bayesian change point detection model to assess the probability that changes in the rate of adoption of new and revised operational procedures occurred following the introduction of CoPs. The results confirmed our predictions, providing support for the idea that CoPs benefit organizations by contributing to the development of better operational routines and demonstrating the utility of Bayesian techniques for assessing the impact of complex organizational change.

Using the group engagement model, we hypothesize that two differentiated leadership constructs – LMX differentiation at the group level and a new construct, LMX relational separation, at the individual-within-group level – interact with LMX to affect follower citizenship behaviors (OCB) and turnover intentions. Data from 223 followers and their leaders situated across 60 workgroups demonstrate that the effects of individual perceived LMX quality are contingent upon a group's overall variability in LMX (i.e., LMX differentiation) and employees' similarity in terms of LMX with their coworkers (i.e., LMX relational separation). Specifically, the effects of high quality LMX relationships on OCB and turnover intentions are weaker when group LMX differentiation or employees' LMX relational separation is higher, rather than lower. Our findings contribute to a growing stream of multilevel LMX research incorporating climate effects and offer an alternative view of differentiated leadership in groups. Key implications for theory and practice are discussed.

Integrating work from the expatriate adjustment and newcomer socialization literatures within a motivational framework, we propose that motivational states and stress cognitions impact expatriates' work adjustment patterns over time, which in turn influence important assignment attitudes. In accordance with our theorizing, analyses of longitudinal data collected from 70 expatriates during their first four months of international assignment indicated that cross-cultural motivation and psychological empowerment related positively to initial levels of adjustment, and indirectly and negatively to work adjustment change. Challenge stressors positively related to changes in work adjustment over time. In turn, changes in work adjustment significantly related to expatriates' assignment satisfaction and premature return intention, explaining variance above and beyond that explained by average levels of work adjustment. These findings extend understanding of how and why expatriate work adjustment evolves over time, as well as the unique influence that differences in adjustment change have on important expatriate outcomes.

Employees increasingly serve on more than one team simultaneously, an arrangement referred to as multiple team membership (MTM). Despite the increasing popularity of MTM arrangements, the predomina...

In two studies conducted in the United States and the People's Republic of China, we examined how the effects of organizational justice perceptions on employees' organizational citizenship behaviours (OCB) are influenced by individually held cultural value orientations. In Study 1, we did not find evidence of moderation by cultural value orientation. In Study 2, we re-examined the moderated relationships and found that the relationship between procedural justice and OCB was significantly influenced by masculinity-femininity orientation and that the relationship between distributive justice and OCB was significantly moderated by power distance such that the relationships were more strongly positive when followers were more masculine and higher in power distance. Also, we extended our model to include perceived supervisor support as a mediator of the direct and moderated effects of justice perceptions on OCB. We found support for the mediation model, but did not find the moderated mediation effects we predicted. Due to the large number of non-significant findings and inconsistencies across our two studies, we conclude with recommendations for scholars who face similar challenges in their research.

Organizational communities of practice (OCoPs) are used increasingly to capitalize on valuable distributed knowledge and to fully engage the innovation potential of employees. OCoPs have become increasingly global in their reach, relying of necessity on virtual forms of interaction to engage the participation and expertise of a global workforce. An unanswered question is whether the performance of such global OCoPs may be predicted to benefit or suffer owing to their nationality diversity. Using data from over 200 members of 30 global OCoPs in a Fortune 100 US-based multinational mining and minerals processing firm, we found that nationality diversity was curvilinearly (U-shaped) related to community performance. We also found that the curvilinear relationship was moderated by psychological safety and the extent of rich communication media use. Specifically, the arc relating nationality diversity and performance became more positive at the higher end, and less negative at the lower end, to the extent that communities reported higher psychological safety and richer communication media use.

Many organizations use formal recognition programs (e.g., "employee of the month") as a way to publically acknowledge an individual employee's outstanding performance and motivate continued high performance. However, it remains unclear whether emphasizing individual achievement in a team context is beneficial or detrimental for recipients' teammates and, by extension, the team as a whole. Drawing on a social influence perspective, we examine potential spillover effects of individual formal recognition programs in teams. We hypothesize that a single team member's recognition will produce positive spillover effects on other team members' performance, as well as overall team performance, via social influence processes, especially when the award recipient is located in a central position in a team. Findings from 2 lab experiments of 24 teams and 40 teams (Study 1 and Study 2, respectively) and a field experiment of 52 manufacturing teams (Study 3) reveal that formally recognizing a team member leads to positive changes in her/his teammates' individual and collective performance. Thus, formal social recognition programs can potentially provide a motivational effect beyond individual recipients. (PsycINFO Database Record

Drawing on substitutes for leadership theory, we revisit an often taken-for-granted assumption that transformational leadership is a universally positive management practice by examining subordinate-based aspects attenuating the relationship between transformational leadership and followers’ citizenship and taking charge. Using data collected from 196 followers and their leaders situated in 55 workgroups in 2 Chinese organizations, we found that followers’ citizenship and taking charge were not influenced by transformational leadership when followers perceived leaders as prototypical and were highly identified with their workgroups. Furthermore, following a differential pattern for citizenship and taking charge, followers’ traditionality weakened the relationship with citizenship, whereas followers’ learning goal orientation attenuated the relationship with taking charge. Introducing contingencies and specifying their underlying logic broadens the current theoretical spectrum for both substitutes for leadership and transformational leadership.

This meta-analysis offers an updated set of national cultural scores along the dimensions of Hofstede's cultural framework. The meta-analytic national cultural indices have two advantages. First, they are based on a larger and more representative sample than that used in Hofstede's or any other cross-cultural comparison study. The data come from 451 empirical studies representing over 2000 samples comprising over half a million individuals from 49 countries and regions. Second, cultural change is addressed by offering separate sets of indices for different decades. This would be helpful in longitudinal studies of the interplay between culture and other phenomena. The meta-analytic indices are validated against a set of external criteria.

Researchers who are fortunate enough to collect large datasets sometimes wish to publish multiple papers using the same dataset. Unfortunately, there are few guidelines that authors can follow in managing these multiple papers. In this article, we address three main questions including: (i) how do authors know if they have a dataset truly worthy of multiple papers; (ii) what procedures do authors follow when they are ready to submit multiple papers from a single dataset to top tier journals; and (iii) what are the main issues when attempting to publish multiple papers from a single dataset? We provide a set of concrete recommendations for authors who wish to maximize their data collection efforts with multiple papers.

At one time, national culture was primarily the concern of tourists and diplomats, having little to do with the workplace. In the latter part of the 20th century, there were a series of international policy changes in many Asian and Eastern European countries that enabled a tidal wave of international joint ventures and outsourcing. Quickly, business partners realized that making these relationships successful required attending to national cultural differences. In particular, it did not take a long while to learn that the Japanese way and the American way were radically different. In 1986, for example, a popular film by Ron Howard, “Gung Ho,” was based on the theme that you couldn’t easily transplant these management styles across borders. Some would now argue that the needs for such cultural lessons are fading away, perhaps permanently. The breakthroughs in communication technology, increased travel, and the Westernization of some business practices around the world have shifted the focus from local differences to more global consistency. With the increase in global production, global employment, and global brands, are we also entering an era of global culture? Is the world now officially “flat?” Or is it just slightly flatter?

Purpose -- This study investigated whether meeting electronically first using computer-mediated communication (CMC) before meeting face-to-face (FTF) increases the inclusion of a female group member in a predominantly male project team. Design/methodology/approach -- We used an experimental design and a sample of 200 college students grouped within 50 four-person teams of one woman and three men. Twenty-five teams communicated using CMC first, then FTF. The other 25 teams communicated using FTF first, then CMC. Findings -- Results showed that women felt more included in the teams when they used CMC first and then FTF as opposed to the more often recommended FTF and then CMC. Findings showed that the order of communication medium influenced perceived inclusion, which in turn influenced individual participation. Implications -- Conventional wisdom suggests that today’s project teams, whose members typically use a variety of communication media, should always meet FTF first at the beginning of their life cycle to enhance individual and team performance. Our study suggests that within diverse teams in which one minority team member is different from the rest of team and may feel excluded, initial CMC may help the minority member feel more included. Originality/value -- This study shows that the order of communication medium can influence team outcomes. In particular, meeting using CMC first and then FTF can be helpful for diverse teams with minority team members.

Departing from the emphasis on individual-level stress processes in prior expatriate research, we develop a multilevel model of expatriate “cross-cultural motivation and effectiveness” (motivation and effectiveness pertaining to cross-cultural contexts) that incorporates the influences of foreign subsidiary–level attributes. Analyses of multisource and multilevel data collected from 556 expatriates in 31 foreign subsidiaries indicated that expatriate cross-cultural motivation was more positively related to work adjustment—and that work adjustment was more likely to mediate the positive relationship between cross-cultural motivation and job performance—when expatriates were assigned to foreign subsidiaries characterized by lower levels of subsidiary support and cultural distance.

Despite beliefs that strategy implementation begins at the top of a firm, organizational research has not sufficiently focused on understanding top management teams’ (TMTs) actual role in strategy ...

Using data from 598 studies representing over 200,000 individuals, we meta-analyzed the relationship between G. Hofstede's (1980a) original 4 cultural value dimensions and a variety of organizationally relevant outcomes. First, values predict outcomes with similar strength (with an overall absolute weighted effect size of rho = 0.18) at the individual level of analysis. Second, the predictive power of the cultural values was significantly lower than that of personality traits and demographics for certain outcomes (e.g., job performance, absenteeism, turnover) but was significantly higher for others (e.g., organizational commitment, identification, citizenship behavior, team-related attitudes, feedback seeking). Third, cultural values were most strongly related to emotions, followed by attitudes, then behaviors, and finally job performance. Fourth, cultural values were more strongly related to outcomes for managers (rather than students) and for older, male, and more educated respondents. Fifth, findings were stronger for primary, rather than secondary, data. Finally, we provide support for M. Gelfand, L. H. Nishii, and J. L. Raver's (2006) conceptualization of societal tightness-looseness, finding significantly stronger effects in culturally tighter, rather than looser, countries.

The study of culture and cultural values continues to be hotly debated among cross-cultural researchers worldwide. Starting with the seminal work of Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck, and Hofstede, and continuing with more recent efforts, researchers have continued to develop and empirically examine cultural value frameworks in an attempt to understand how cultural differences affect work-related behaviors and attitudes. The purpose of this commentary is to briefly describe the interesting – and counterintuitive – findings from the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) project, summarize the different interpretations of these findings offered by Maseland and van Hoorn, and by Brewer and Venaik, provide a critique of their arguments, and finally offer a list of possible alternative interpretations and explanations for the conflicting findings in the GLOBE study.