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The number of described species on the planet is about 1.9 million, with ca. 17,000 new species described annually, mostly from the tropics. However, taxonomy is usually described as a science in crisis, lacking manpower and funding, a politically acknowledged problem known as the Taxonomic Impediment. Using data from the Fauna Europaea database and the Zoological Record, we show that contrary to general belief, developed and heavily-studied parts of the world are important reservoirs of unknown species. In Europe, new species of multicellular terrestrial and freshwater animals are being discovered and named at an unprecedented rate: since the 1950s, more than 770 new species are on average described each year from Europe, which add to the 125,000 terrestrial and freshwater multicellular species already known in this region. There is no sign of having reached a plateau that would allow for the assessment of the magnitude of European biodiversity. More remarkably, over 60% of these new species are described by non-professional taxonomists. Amateurs are recognized as an essential part of the workforce in ecology and astronomy, but the magnitude of non-professional taxonomist contributions to alpha-taxonomy has not been fully realized until now. Our results stress the importance of developing a system that better supports and guides this formidable workforce, as we seek to overcome the Taxonomic Impediment and speed up the process of describing the planetary biodiversity before it is too late. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036881

The number of described species on the planet is about 1.9 million, with ca. 17,000 new species described annually, mostly from the tropics. However, taxonomy is usually described as a science in crisis, lacking manpower and funding, a politically acknowledged problem known as the Taxonomic Impediment. Using data from the Fauna Europaea database and the Zoological Record, we show that contrary to general belief, developed and heavily-studied parts of the world are important reservoirs of unknown species. In Europe, new species of multicellular terrestrial and freshwater animals are being discovered and named at an unprecedented rate: since the 1950s, more than 770 new species are on average described each year from Europe, which add to the 125,000 terrestrial and freshwater multicellular species already known in this region. There is no sign of having reached a plateau that would allow for the assessment of the magnitude of European biodiversity. More remarkably, over 60% of these new species are described by non-professional taxonomists. Amateurs are recognized as an essential part of the workforce in ecology and astronomy, but the magnitude of non-professional taxonomist contributions to alpha-taxonomy has not been fully realized until now. Our results stress the importance of developing a system that better supports and guides this formidable workforce, as we seek to overcome the Taxonomic Impediment and speed up the process of describing the planetary biodiversity before it is too late. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036881

Non-professional taxonomists have been responsible for describing more than half of the animal species discovered in Europe from 1998 to 2007 (see also Nature 467, 788; 2010). The extraordinary current rate of description of new species makes Europe an unexpected frontier for biodiversity exploration. The Fauna Europaea database (http://www.faunaeur.org), released in 2004, lists more than 125,000 European species of multicellular terrestrial and freshwater animals. More than 700 new species are described each year in Europe — four times the rate of two centuries ago. However, we have not yet reached saturation in the inventory of European fauna, and we cannot accurately estimate the total number of species living in the continent's ecosystems.

Non-professional taxonomists have been responsible for describing more than half of the animal species discovered in Europe from 1998 to 2007 (see also Nature 467, 788; 2010). The extraordinary current rate of description of new species makes Europe an unexpected frontier for biodiversity exploration. The Fauna Europaea database (http://www.faunaeur.org), released in 2004, lists more than 125,000 European species of multicellular terrestrial and freshwater animals. More than 700 new species are described each year in Europe — four times the rate of two centuries ago. However, we have not yet reached saturation in the inventory of European fauna, and we cannot accurately estimate the total number of species living in the continent's ecosystems.

The commonest caligid copepod infesting commercial salmonid netpen systems in southern Chile is described as a new species, Caligus rogercresseyi. This species belongs to the macarovigroup of species within the genus. It differs from Caligus flexispina Lewis 1964, with which it has previously been confused, in several important characters. These include the relatively elongate caudal rami, the proportions of the female genital complex and of the male abdomen, and the armature and ornamentation of the antenna in both sexes. The form of the sensillae associated with the postantennal process and the form of the male maxilliped are identified as possible additional diagnostic characters of the macarovi-group.

Japan (Tanaka, 1967; Ohtsuka, 1985; Ohtsuka & Mitsuzumi, 1990; Ohtsuka et al., 1991), Australia (McKinnon & Kimmerer, 1985), and New Zealand (Othman & Greenwood, 1992). Records of species far from their ordinary ranges, such as those of Paramisophria cluthae T. Scott, 1897 from the Mediterranean (Sars, 1924-1925) and the western Pacific (Tanaka, 1967), or that of P. ammophila Fosshagen, 1968 from the Mediterranean (Carola et al., 1995), should be considered with caution since they are based on females only, and the major diagnostic characters at the species level rely on male morphology. In this paper, we describe three new species of Paramisophria from the Spanish zone of the Mediterranean, where they apparently follow an allopatric depth zonation pattern extending from the upper littoral to depths in excess of 1200 m. Additionally, the discovery of deep-water species has provided new evidence relevant to the deep-sea / shallow-water controversy on the origin of anchialine cave faunas (see Stock, 1986) from our analysis of the phylogenetic relationships between Paramisophria species and of the type of habitat exploited by each.

The commonest caligid copepod infesting commercial salmonid netpen systems in southern Chile is described as a new species, Caligus rogercresseyi. This species belongs to the macarovigroup of species within the genus. It differs from Caligus flexispina Lewis 1964, with which it has previously been confused, in several important characters. These include the relatively elongate caudal rami, the proportions of the female genital complex and of the male abdomen, and the armature and ornamentation of the antenna in both sexes. The form of the sensillae associated with the postantennal process and the form of the male maxilliped are identified as possible additional diagnostic characters of the macarovi-group.

Japan (Tanaka, 1967; Ohtsuka, 1985; Ohtsuka & Mitsuzumi, 1990; Ohtsuka et al., 1991), Australia (McKinnon & Kimmerer, 1985), and New Zealand (Othman & Greenwood, 1992). Records of species far from their ordinary ranges, such as those of Paramisophria cluthae T. Scott, 1897 from the Mediterranean (Sars, 1924-1925) and the western Pacific (Tanaka, 1967), or that of P. ammophila Fosshagen, 1968 from the Mediterranean (Carola et al., 1995), should be considered with caution since they are based on females only, and the major diagnostic characters at the species level rely on male morphology. In this paper, we describe three new species of Paramisophria from the Spanish zone of the Mediterranean, where they apparently follow an allopatric depth zonation pattern extending from the upper littoral to depths in excess of 1200 m. Additionally, the discovery of deep-water species has provided new evidence relevant to the deep-sea / shallow-water controversy on the origin of anchialine cave faunas (see Stock, 1986) from our analysis of the phylogenetic relationships between Paramisophria species and of the type of habitat exploited by each.

In many copepod species adult males clasp females for an extended period before transferring spermatophores. Clasping juvenile females (first to fifth copepodid inclusive) is interpreted as mate guarding and is shown to be widespread among podoplean copepods. It is distinct from copulation, which takes place only between adults and is often distinguishable from mate guarding by a difference in clasping posture.

In many copepod species adult males clasp females for an extended period before transferring spermatophores. Clasping juvenile females (first to fifth copepodid inclusive) is interpreted as mate guarding and is shown to be widespread among podoplean copepods. It is distinct from copulation, which takes place only between adults and is often distinguishable from mate guarding by a difference in clasping posture.

The terrestial Orchestia from Tenerife (Canary Islands), currently recorded as O. chevreuxi De Guerne, 1887, is compared with material from the terra typica, the island of Faial in the Azores. It is concluded that the Tenerife populations belong to a different species, which we describe as O. guancha n. sp., whereas O. mateusi Afonso, 1977 is considered a junior synonym of O. chevreuxi (new synonymy).

The terrestial Orchestia from Tenerife (Canary Islands), currently recorded as O. chevreuxi De Guerne, 1887, is compared with material from the terra typica, the island of Faial in the Azores. It is concluded that the Tenerife populations belong to a different species, which we describe as O. guancha n. sp., whereas O. mateusi Afonso, 1977 is considered a junior synonym of O. chevreuxi (new synonymy).