Search

We have derived luminosity functions and set constraints on the UV luminosity and SFR density from z ∼ 17 to z ∼ 8, using the three most-studied JWST/NIRCam data sets, the SMACS0723, GLASS Parallel, and CEERS fields. We first used our own selections on two independent reductions of these data sets using the latest calibrations. A total of 18 z ∼ 8, 12 z ∼ 10, 5 z ∼ 13, and 1 z ∼ 17 candidate galaxies are identified over these fields in our primary reductions, with a similar number of candidates in our secondary reductions. We then use these two reductions, applying a quantitative discriminator, to segregate the full set of z ≥ 8 candidates reported over these fields from the literature, into three different samples, 'robust', 'solid', and 'possible'. Using all of these samples, we then derive UV LF and luminosity density results at z ≥ 8, finding substantial differences. For example, including the full set of 'solid' and 'possible' z ≥ 12 candidates from the literature, we find UV luminosity densities, which are ∼7× and ∼20× higher than relying on the 'robust' candidates alone. These results indicate the evolution of the UV LF and luminosity densities at z ≥ 8 is still extremely uncertain, emphasizing the need for spectroscopy and deeper NIRCam + optical imaging to obtain reliable results. Nevertheless, even with the very conservative 'robust' approach to selections, both from our own and those of other studies, we find the luminosity density from luminous (MUV < −19) galaxies to be ∼2 × larger than is easily achievable using constant star formation efficiency models, similar to what other early JWST results have suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the first constraints on the prevalence of z > 10 galaxies in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF) leveraging new NIRCam observations from JEMS (JWST Extragalactic Medium-band Survey). These NIRCam observations probe redward of 1.6 μm, beyond the wavelength limit of HST , allowing us to search for galaxies to z > 10. These observations indicate that the highest redshift candidate identified in the HUDF09 data with HST , UDFj-39546284, has a redshift of z > 11.5, as had been suggested in analyses of the HUDF12/XDF data. This has now been confirmed with JWST NIRSpec. This source is thus the most distant galaxy discovered by HST in its >30 yr of operation. Additionally, we identify nine other z ∼ 8–13 candidate galaxies over the HUDF, two of which are new discoveries that appear to lie at z ∼ 11–12. We use these results to characterize the evolution of the UV luminosity function (LF) from z ∼ 15 to z ∼ 8.7. While our LF results at z ∼ 8.7 and z ∼ 10.5 are consistent with previous findings over the HUDF, our new LF estimates at z ∼ 12.6 are higher than other results in the literature, potentially pointing to a milder evolution in the UV luminosity density from z ∼ 12.6. We emphasize that our LF results are uncertain given the small number of z ∼ 12.6 sources and limited volume probed. The new NIRCam data also indicate that the faint z ∼ 8–13 galaxies in the HUDF/XDF show blue UV -continuum slopes β ∼ −2.7, high specific star formation rates ∼24.5 Gyr−1, and high EW (∼1300 Å) [O  iii ] + H β emission, with two z ∼ 8.5 sources showing [O  iii ] + H β EWs of ∼2300 Å. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the deepest constraints yet on the median rest-UV+optical spectral energy distribution (SED) of z ∼ 10 galaxies prior to James Webb Space Telescope science operations. We constructed stacks based on four robust J 125 dropouts, previously identified across the GOODS fields. We used archival Hubble Space Telescope/Wide Field Camera 3 data and the full-depth Spitzer/IRAC mosaics from the GREATS program, the deepest coverage at ∼3–5 μ m to date. The most remarkable feature of the SED is a blue IRAC [3.6]–[4.5] = −0.18 ± 0.25 mag color. We also find a nearly flat H 160 − [3.6] = 0.07 ± 0.22 mag color, corresponding to a UV slope β = −1.92 ± 0.25. This is consistent with previous studies and indicative of minimal dust absorption. The observed blue IRAC color and SED fitting suggest that z ∼ 10 galaxies have very young (few × 10 Myr) stellar populations, with 80% of stars being formed in the last ≲160 Myr (2 σ). While an exciting result, the uncertainties on the SED are too large to allow us to place strong constraints on the presence of a nebular continuum in z ∼ 10 galaxies (as might be suggested by the blue [3.6]–[4.5] < 0 mag color). The resulting sSFR is consistent with the specific accretion rate of dark matter halos, indicative of a star formation efficiency showing quite limited evolution at such early epochs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep rest-optical observations are required to accurately constrain the stellar populations of z ∼ 8 galaxies. Due to significant limitations in the availability of such data for statistically complete samples, observational results have been limited to modest numbers of bright or lensed sources. To revolutionize the present characterization of z ∼ 8 galaxies, we exploit the ultradeep (∼27 mag, 3 σ) Spitzer/Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) 3.6 and 4.5 ÎĽ m data, probing the rest-frame optical at z ∼ 8, over ∼200 arcmin2 of the GOODS fields from the recently completed GOODS Re-ionization Era wide-Area Treasury from Spitzer program (GREATS), combined with observations in the Cosmic Assembly Near-infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey (CANDELS)/Ultra Deep Survey (UDS) and CANDELS/Cosmic Evolution Survey (COSMOS) fields. We stacked ≳100 z ∼ 8 Lyman-break galaxies in four bins of UV luminosity (M UV ∼ âˆ'20.7 to âˆ'18.4 mag) and study their H 160 âˆ' [3.6] and [3.6]â€"[4.5] colors. We find young ages (≲100 Myr) for the three faintest stacks, inferred from their blue H 160 âˆ' [3.6] ∼ 0 mag colors, consistent with a negative Balmer break. Meanwhile, the redder H 160 âˆ' [3.6] color seen in the brightest stack is suggestive of slightly older ages. We explored the existence of a correlation between the UV luminosity and age, and find either no trend or fainter galaxies being younger. The stacked SEDs also exhibit very red [3.6]â€"[4.5] ∼ 0.5 mag colors, indicative of intense [O iii ]+H β nebular emission and star formation rate (SFR). The correspondingly high specific SFRs, sSFR ≳10 Gyrâˆ'1, are consistent with recent determinations at similar redshifts and higher luminosities, and support the coevolution between the sSFR and the specific halo mass accretion rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study the molecular gas content of 24 star-forming galaxies at z = 3–4, with a median stellar mass of 109.1M⊙, from the MUSE Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF) Survey. Selected by their Lyαλ1216 emission and HF160W-band magnitude, the galaxies show an average Å, below the typical selection threshold for Lyα emitters (Å), and a rest-frame UV spectrum similar to Lyman-break galaxies. We use rest-frame optical spectroscopy from KMOS and MOSFIRE, and the UV features observed with MUSE, to determine the systemic redshifts, which are offset from Lyα by 〈Δv(Lyα)〉 = 346 km s−1, with a 100 to 600 km s−1 range. Stacking 12CO J = 4 → 3 and [C i ]3P1 → 3P0 (and higher-J CO lines) from the ALMA Spectroscopic Survey of the HUDF, we determine 3σ upper limits on the line luminosities of 4.0 × 108 K km s−1pc2 and 5.6 × 108 K km s−1pc2, respectively (for a 300 km s−1 line width). Stacking the 1.2 mm and 3 mm dust-continuum flux densities, we find a 3σ upper limits of 9 μJy and 1.2 μJy, respectively. The inferred gas fractions, under the assumption of a "Galactic" CO-to-H2 conversion factor and gas-to-dust ratio, are in tension with previously determined scaling relations. This implies a substantially higher αCO ≥ 10 and δGDR ≥ 1200, consistent with the subsolar metallicity estimated for these galaxies (). The low metallicity of z ≥ 3 star-forming galaxies may thus make it very challenging to unveil their cold gas through CO or dust emission, warranting further exploration of alternative tracers, such as [C ii ]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We make use of sensitive (9.3 μJy beam−1 rms) 1.2 mm continuum observations from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Spectroscopic Survey in the Hubble Ultra-Deep Field (ASPECS) large program to probe dust-enshrouded star formation from 1362 Lyman-break galaxies spanning the redshift range z = 1.5–10 (to ∼7–28 M⊙ yr−1 at 4σ over the entire range). We find that the fraction of ALMA-detected galaxies in our z = 1.5–10 samples increases steeply with stellar mass, with the detection fraction rising from 0% at 109.0M⊙ to % at >1010M⊙. Moreover, on stacking all 1253 low-mass (<109.25M⊙) galaxies over the ASPECS footprint, we find a mean continuum flux of −0.1 ± 0.4 μJy beam−1, implying a hard upper limit on the obscured star formation rate of <0.6 M⊙ yr−1 (4σ) in a typical low-mass galaxy. The correlation between the infrared excess (IRX) of UV-selected galaxies (LIR/LUV) and the UV-continuum slope is also seen in our ASPECS data and shows consistency with a Calzetti-like relation at > and an SMC-like relation at lower masses. Using stellar mass and β measurements for z ∼ 2 galaxies over the Cosmic Assembly Near-infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey, we derive a new empirical relation between β and stellar mass and then use this correlation to show that our IRX–β and IRX–stellar mass relations are consistent with each other. We then use these constraints to express the IRX as a bivariate function of β and stellar mass. Finally, we present updated estimates of star formation rate density determinations at z > 3, leveraging present improvements in the measured IRX and recent probes of ultraluminous far-IR galaxies at z > 2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the first measurements of the Lyman-continuum photon production efficiency ξion, 0 at z ∼ 4–5 for galaxies fainter than 0.2 L* (−19 mag). ξion, 0 quantifies the production rate of ionizing photons with respect to the UV luminosity density assuming a fiducial escape fraction of zero. Extending previous measurements of ξion, 0 to the faint population is important, as ultra-faint galaxies are expected to contribute the bulk of the ionizing emissivity. We probe ξion, 0 to such faint magnitudes by taking advantage of 200-h depth Spitzer/IRAC observations from the GREATS program and ≈300 3 <  z <  6 galaxies with spectroscopic redshifts from the MUSE GTO Deep + Wide programs. Stacked IRAC [3.6]−[4.5] colors are derived and used to infer the Hα rest-frame equivalent widths, which range from 403 Å to 2818 Å. The derived ξion, 0 is log10(ξion,0/Hz erg−1) = 25.36 ± 0.08 over −20.5 <  MUV <  −17.5, similar to those derived for brighter galaxy samples at the same redshift and therefore suggesting that ξion shows no strong dependence on MUV. The ξion, 0 values found in our sample imply that the Lyman-continuum escape fraction for MUV ≈ −19 star-forming galaxies cannot exceed ≈8–20% in the reionization era. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dispersed fluorescence spectra from the 000 rotational level of 40, 41, 51, and 3141 S1 formaldehyde (H2CO) have been recorded. From these spectra, 198 new vibrational states have been assigned with energies up to 12 500 cm-1, and their positions have been determined to within an uncertainty of 1 cm-1. The assignment of vibrational lines to specific vibrational states becomes increasingly difficult at the higher energy regions of the spectra (>=9000 cm-1) due to extensive state mixing. Harmonic and first-order anharmonic vibrational constants were extracted from fits to these vibrational states. For states with highest zero-order coefficient squared greater than 35%, the standard deviation of the spectroscopic fit is 6.9 cm-1. For states which are lower energy (<9500 cm-1) and relatively pure (zero-order coefficient squared greater than 0.75 or largest in a given normal mode combination), the standard deviation is 1.7 cm-1. Good agreement with ab initio vibrational constants calculated by Martin et al. [J. Mol. Spectrosc. 160, 105 (1993)] is achieved, except in cases where all observed states contributing to the determination of a particular constant are significantly mixed. These deviations are readily explained by a consideration of anharmonic vibrational interactions that occur among specific combinations of normal modes. The average mean deviation between all experimentally determined energies and a recent theoretical calculation by Burleigh et al. [J. Chem. Phys. 104, 480 (1996)] is 2.6 cm-1. © 1996 American Institute of Physics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Measurements of the UV-continuum slopes β provide valuable information on the physical properties of galaxies forming in the early universe, probing the dust reddening, age, metal content, and even the escape fraction. While constraints on these slopes generally become more challenging at higher redshifts as the UV-continuum shifts out of the Hubble Space Telescope bands (particularly at z > 7), such a characterization actually becomes abruptly easier for galaxies in the redshift window z=9.5-10.5 due to the Spitzer/Infrared Array Camera 3.6 μmband probing the rest-UV continuum and the long wavelength baseline between this Spitzer band and the Hubble Hf160w band. Higher S/N constraints on β are possible at z ~ 10 than at z = 8. Here, we take advantage of this opportunity and five recently discovered bright z = 9.5-10.5 galaxies to present the first measurements of the mean β for a multi-object sample of galaxy candidates at z ~ 10.We find the measured βobs's of these candidates are -2.1 ± 0.3 ± 0.2 (random and systematic), only slightly bluer than the measured β's (βobs ≈-1.7) at 3.5 < z < 7.5 for galaxies of similar luminosities. Small increases in the stellar ages, metallicities, and dust content of the galaxy population from z ~ 10 to z ~ 7 could easily explain the apparent evolution in β. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We measure the evolution of the specific star formation rate (sSFR = SFR/Mstellar) between redshift 4 and 6 to assess the reported “constant” sSFR at z > 2. We derive stellar masses and star formation rates (SFRs) for a large sample of 750 z ∼ 4-6 galaxies in the GOODS-S field by fitting stellar population models to their spectral energy distributions. Dust extinction is derived from the observed UV colors. We evaluate different star formation histories (SFHs, constant and rising with time) and the impact of optical emission lines. The SFR and Mstellar values are insensitive to whether the SFH is constant or rising. The derived sSFR is very similar (within 0.1 dex) in two Mstellar bins centered at 1 and 5 × 109M☼. The effect of emission lines was, however, quite pronounced. Assuming no contribution from emission lines, the sSFR for galaxies at 5 × 109M☼ evolves weakly at z > 2 (sSFR(z)∝(1 + z)0.6 ± 0.1), consistent with previous results. When emission lines are included in the rest-frame optical bands, consistent with the observed Infrared Array Camera [3.6] and [4.5] fluxes, the sSFR shows higher values at high redshift following sSFR(z)∝(1 + z)1.0 ± 0.1, i.e., the best-fit evolution shows a sSFR ∼2.3 × higher at z ∼ 6 than at z ∼ 2. This is, however, a substantially weaker trend than that found at z < 2 and even than that expected from current models for z > 2 (sSFR(z)∝(1 + z)2.5). Even accounting for emission lines, the observed sSFR(z) trends at z > 2 are still in tension with theoretical expectations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent work has shown that UV-luminous reionization-era galaxies often exhibit strong Lyman-alpha emission despite being situated at redshifts where the IGM is thought to be substantially neutral. It has been argued that this enhanced Ly α transmission reflects the presence of massive galaxies in overdense regions which power large ionized bubbles. An alternative explanation is that massive galaxies shift more of their Ly α profile to large velocities (relative to the systemic redshift) where the IGM damping wing absorption is reduced. Such a mass-dependent trend is seen at lower redshifts, but whether one exists at z ∼ 7 remains unclear owing to the small number of existing systemic redshift measurements in the reionization era. This is now changing with the emergence of [C  ii ]-based redshifts from ALMA. Here, we report MMT/Binospec Ly α spectroscopy of eight UV-bright (MUV ∼ −22) galaxies at z ≃ 7 selected from the ALMA REBELS survey. We detect Ly α in four of eight galaxies and use the [C  ii ] systemic redshifts to investigate the Ly α velocity profiles. The Ly α lines are significantly redshifted from systemic (average velocity offset = 223 km s–1) and broad (FWHM ≈ 300–650 km s−1), with two sources showing emission extending to ≈750 km s−1. We find that the broadest Ly α profiles are associated with the largest [C  ii ] line widths, suggesting a potential link between the Ly α FWHM and the dynamical mass. Since Ly α photons at high velocities transmit efficiently through the z  = 7 IGM, our data suggest that velocity profiles play a significant role in boosting the Ly α visibility of the most UV-luminous reionization-era galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The first 900 million years (Myr) to redshift z ≈ 6 (the first seven per cent of the age of the Universe) remains largely unexplored for the formation of galaxies. Large samples of galaxies have been found at z ≈ 6 (refs 1–4) but detections at earlier times are uncertain and unreliable. It is not at all clear how galaxies built up from the first stars when the Universe was about 300 Myr old (z ≈ 12–15) to z ≈ 6, just 600 Myr later. Here we report the results of a search for galaxies at z ≈ 7–8, about 700 Myr after the Big Bang, using the deepest near-infrared and optical images ever taken. Under conservative selection criteria we find only one candidate galaxy at z ≈ 7–8, where ten would be expected if there were no evolution in the galaxy population between z ≈ 7–8 and z ≈ 6. Using less conservative criteria, there are four candidates, where 17 would be expected with no evolution. This demonstrates that very luminous galaxies are quite rare 700 Myr after the Big Bang. The simplest explanation is that the Universe is just too young to have built up many luminous galaxies at z ≈ 7–8 by the hierarchical merging of small galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: HST ACS and NICMOS data are now of sufficient depth and areal coverage to place strong constraints on the formation and evolution of galaxies during the first 1–2Gyrs of the universe. Of particular interest are galaxies at z ∼6 since they represent the earliest epoch accessible to current high-efficiency optical instrumentation. To this end, we have been involved in the systematic construction of a large sample of 346 z ∼6 objects from all the deepest wide-area HST data (UDF, UDF-Parallel, and GOODS fields). They have been used to construct an optimal determination of the rest-frame continuum UV LF at z ∼6. Our LF extends to over 3 magnitudes below L*, fainter than has been done at z ∼3. Over the interval z ∼6 to z ∼3, we find strong evidence for evolution in the UV LF. Though we can thus far make no strong claims on an evolution of the faint end slope, the characteristic luminosity appears to have approximately doubled over the interval z ∼6 to z ∼3, consistent with hierarchical expectations. Remarkably, this shift to lower luminosities extends to even higher redshifts. Using all deep J + H NICMOS observations (800 orbits in total), we have been able to demonstrate that the bright end of the LF is at least 5 times lower at z ∼10 than at z ∼4, with a similar deficit being established from our recent detections and first statistical sample of z ∼7–8 galaxies using our UDF NICMOS data. In these precedings, we discuss what is known about the UV LF and UV luminosity density at z ∼6–10 from current data and its evolution relative to z ∼3. We also describe several exciting prospects for advance in this area over the next year. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Gravitational lensing from galaxy clusters has great potential for deriving the prevalence and physical properties of ultra-faint galaxies at early times, with recent very impressive results from the Hubble Frontier Fields program. Important issues in deriving the most accurate results are accurate constraints on source sizes and a robust treatment of uncertainties in the magnification models. Using > 3300 z = 2 – 10 galaxies behind the 6 Hubble Frontier Fields clusters and a forwards modeling approach, I describe the efforts of my collaborators and me to map out the galaxy luminosity functions at ∼ − 13 mag from z ∼ 9 to z ∼ 2, i.e, a factor of 1000 below Lå and to the typical luminosity of galaxies suspected to drive cosmic reionization. Additionally, I discuss the constraints we can obtain on the properties of faint sources, in particular their stellar masses, mass-to-light ratios, colors, and stellar population ages. I conclude with a prospective on using cluster lenses to study the distant universe with the James Webb Space Telescope. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) observations revealed the presence of significant amounts of dust in the first Gyr of Cosmic time. However, the metal and dust build-up picture remains very uncertain due to the lack of constraints on metallicity. JWST has started to reveal the metal content of high-redshift targets, which may lead to firmer constraints on high-redshift dusty galaxies evolution. In this work, we use detailed chemical and dust evolution models to explore the evolution of galaxies within the ALMA Reionization Era Bright Emission Line Survey (REBELS) survey, testing different metallicity scenarios that could be inferred from JWST observations. In the models, we track the build-up of stellar mass using non-parametric star formation histories for REBELS galaxies. Different scenarios for metal and dust evolution are simulated by allowing different prescriptions for gas flows and dust processes. The model outputs are compared with measured dust scaling relations, by employing metallicity-dependent calibrations for the gas mass based on the [C  ii ] 158  μ m line. Independently of the galaxies metal content, we found no need for extreme dust prescriptions to explain the dust masses revealed by ALMA. However, different levels of metal enrichment will lead to different dominant dust production mechanisms, with stardust production dominant over other interstellar medium dust processes only in the metal-poor case. This points out how metallicity measurements from JWST will significantly improve our understanding of the dust build-up in high-redshift galaxies. We also show that models struggle to reproduce observables such as dust-to-gas and dust-to-stellar ratios simultaneously, possibly indicating an overestimation of the gas mass through current calibrations, especially at high metallicities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present new ALMA Band 8 (rest-frame |$90 \ \mu$| m) continuum observations of three massive (⁠|$M_\star \approx 10^{10}\ \mathrm{ M}_\odot$|⁠) galaxies at z ≈ 7 previously detected in [C  ii ] |$158 \ \mu$| m and underlying dust continuum emission in the Reionization Era Bright Emission Line Survey (REBELS). We detect dust emission from two of our targets in Band 8 (REBELS-25 and REBELS-38), while REBELS-12 remains undetected. Through optically thin modified blackbody fitting, we determine dust temperatures of |$T_\mathrm{dust}\approx 30-35\,$| K in both of the dual-band detected targets, indicating they are colder than most known galaxies at z ∼ 7. Moreover, their inferred dust masses are large (⁠|$M_\mathrm{dust}\approx 10^{8}\ \mathrm{ M}_\odot$|⁠), albeit still consistent with models of high-redshift dust production. We furthermore target and detect [O  iii ] |$88 \ \mu$| m emission in both REBELS-12 and REBELS-25, and find |$L_\mathrm{[O\, III]}/L_\mathrm{[C\, II]}\approx 1-1.5$| – low compared to the |$L_\mathrm{[O\, \rm{\small III}]}/L_\mathrm{[C\, \rm{\small II}]}\gtrsim 2-10$| observed in the known z ≳ 6 population thus far. We argue the lower line ratios are due to a comparatively weaker ionizing radiation field resulting from the less starbursty nature of our targets, although the possibility of REBELS-12 being a merger of an [O  iii ]-bright and [O  iii ]-faint component prevents the unambiguous interpretation of its [O  iii ]/[C  ii ] ratio. Nevertheless, a low burstiness forms a natural explanation for the cold dust temperatures and low |$\mathrm{[O\, \rm{\small III}]}\lambda \lambda 4959,5007+\mathrm{H} \, \beta$| equivalent widths of REBELS-25 and REBELS-38. Overall, these observations provide evidence for the existence of a massive, dust-rich galaxy population at z ≈ 7 which has previously experienced vigorous star formation, but is currently forming stars in a steady, as opposed to bursty, manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose a new mission called Space Project for Astrophysical and Cosmological Exploration (SPACE) as part of the ESA long term planning Voyage 2050 programme. SPACE will study galaxy evolution at the earliest times, with the key goals of charting the formation of the heavy elements, measuring the evolution of the galaxy luminosity function, tracing the build-up of stellar mass in galaxies over cosmic time, and finding the first super-massive black holes (SMBHs) to form. The mission will exploit a unique region of the parameter space, between the narrow ultra-deep surveys with HST and JWST, and shallow wide-field surveys such as the Roman Space Telescope and EUCLID, and should yield by far the largest sample of any current or planned mission of very high redshift galaxies at z > 10 which are sufficiently bright for detailed follow-up spectroscopy. Crucially, we propose a wide-field spectroscopic near-IR + mid-IR capability which will greatly enhance our understanding of the first galaxies by detecting and identifying a statistical sample of the first galaxies and the first supermassive black holes, and to chart the metal enrichment history of galaxies in the early Universe – potentially finding signatures of the very first stars to form from metal-free primordial gas. The wide-field and wavelength range of SPACE will also provide us a unique opportunity to study star formation by performing a wide survey of the Milky Way in the near-IR + mid-IR. This science project can be enabled either by a stand-alone ESA-led M mission or by an instrument for an L mission (with ESA and/or NASA, JAXA and other international space agencies) with a wide-field (sub-)millimetre capability at λ > 500 μm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current observations suggest an accelerated evolution of the cosmic star formation rate density for 8 < z < 10, indicating that galaxy assembly experienced an extremely intense phase during the first ∼600Myr years of cosmic time. We performed a systematic search of ultrabright star-forming galaxies at z ∼ 8 over the COSMOS/UltraVISTA survey, identifying 16 candidate Lyman-break galaxies. The still large uncertainties on the associated volume density do not yet allow us to ascertain whether a different star-formation efficiency (SFE) existed at early cosmic epochs. Leveraging the deepest Spitzer/IRAC data available from the GREATS program over the CANDELS/GOODS fields, we also constructed stacked SEDs of sub- L* LBGs at z ∼ 8. We find extreme nebular line emission (EW0 (Hα) ∼ 1000Å), high specific star-formation rates (∼10/Gyr) and indication of an inverse Balmer break. These results point toward very young ages (<100 Myr), and, combined with measurements at lower redshifts, that the SFE evolved only marginally during the first ∼1.5Gyr of cosmic history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dispersed fluorescence (DF) spectroscopy is used to explore the rovibrational structure of highly excited S0 formaldehyde (H2CO). A narrowband laser excites formaldehyde molecules to a single S1 rovibronic quantum state, and the resulting fluorescence is dispersed with a monochromator. DF spectra of ten vibrational levels with excitation in ν2, the carbon–oxygen stretch, and ν4, the out-of-plane bend, have been recorded, and the effective A, B, and C rotational constants are extracted. Five of the effective A rotational constants and seven of the effective B and C rotational constants are new to the literature. The dependence of these effective rotational constants on vibrational state are both calculated and discussed with regard to both the present and previous experiments. Particular attention is given to the manner in which that the effective A rotational constant depends on increasing excitation in ν4 due to the strong A-axis ν4/ν6 Coriolis interaction. For states where v2 is less than two, quantitatively accurate values for the nonlinear dependence of the A rotational constant on quanta in ν2 and ν4 is achieved by a simultaneous consideration of the strong A-axis ν4/ν6 Coriolis interaction and the 1142, 1162, and 512161 Fermi interactions. © 1995 American Institute of Physics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We aim at constraining the dust mass in high-z (z ≳ 5) galaxies using the upper limits obtained by Atacama Large Millimetre/submillimetre Array (ALMA) in combination with the rest-frame UV-optical spectral energy distributions (SEDs). For SED fitting, because of degeneracy between dust extinction and stellar age, we focus on two extremes: continuous star formation (Model A) and instantaneous star formation (Model B).We apply these models to Himiko (as a representative UV-bright object) and a composite SED of z > 5 Lyman break galaxies (LBGs). For Himiko, Model A requires a significant dust extinction, which leads to a high dust temperature >70K for consistency with the ALMA upper limit. This high dust temperature puts a strong upper limit on the total dust mass Md ≲ 2 × 106 M☉, and the dust mass produced per supernova (SN) md,SN ≲ 0.1 M☉. Such a low md, SN suggests significant loss of dust by reverse shock destruction or outflow, and implies that SNe are not the dominant source of dust at high z. Model B allows Md ~ 2 × 107 M☉ and md,SN ~ 0.3 M☉. We could distinguish between Models A and B if we observe Himiko at wavelength < 1.2 mm by ALMA. For the LBG sample, we obtain Md ≲ 2 × 106 M☉ for a typical LBG at z > 5, but this only puts an upper limit for md,SN as ~2 M☉. This clarifies the importance of observing UV-bright objects (like Himiko) to constrain the dust production by SNe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cosmic dust is an essential component shaping both the evolution of galaxies and their observational signatures. How quickly dust builds up in the early Universe remains an open question that requires deep observations at (sub-)millimetre wavelengths to resolve. Here, we use Atacama Large Millimeter Array observations of 45 galaxies from the Reionization Era Bright Emission Line Survey (REBELS) and its pilot programs, designed to target [C  ii ] and dust emission in UV-selected galaxies at z ∼ 7, to investigate the dust content of high-redshift galaxies through a stacking analysis. We find that the typical fraction of obscured star formation f obs = SFRIR/SFRUV+IR depends on stellar mass, similar to what is observed at lower redshift, and ranges from f obs ≈ 0.3 − 0.6 for galaxies with log10(M ⋆/M⊙) = 9.4–10.4. We further adopt the z ∼ 7 stellar mass function from the literature to extract the obscured cosmic star formation rate density (SFRD) from the REBELS survey. Our results suggest only a modest decrease in the SFRD between 3 ≲ z ≲ 7, with dust-obscured star formation still contributing |${\sim}30{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$| at z ∼ 7. While we extensively discuss potential caveats, our analysis highlights the continued importance of dust-obscured star formation even well into the epoch of reionization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We combine recent estimates of dust extinction at z ∼ 4-7 with UV luminosity function (LF) determinations to derive star formation rate (SFR) functions at z ∼ 4-7. SFR functions provide a more physical description of galaxy buildup at high redshift and allow for direct comparisons to SFRs at lower redshifts determined by a variety of techniques. Our SFR functions are derived from well-established z ∼ 4-7 UV LFs, UV-continuum slope trends with redshift and luminosity, and infrared excess (IRX)-β relations. They are well described by Schechter relations. We extend the comparison baseline for SFR functions to z ∼ 2 by considering recent determinations of the Hα and mid-IR LFs. The low-end slopes of the SFR functions are flatter than for the UV LFs, Δα ∼ +0.13, and show no clear evolution with cosmic time (z ∼ 0-7). In addition, we find that the characteristic value SFR* from the Schechter fit to the SFR function exhibits consistent, and substantial, linear growth as a function of redshift from ∼5 M☼ yr–1 at z ∼ 8, 650 Myr after the big bang, to ∼100 M☼ yr–1 at z ∼ 2, ∼2.5 Gyr later. Recent results at z ∼ 10, close to the onset of galaxy formation, are consistent with this trend. The uniformity of this evolution is even greater than seen in the UV LF over the redshift range z ∼ 2-8, providing validation for our dust corrections. These results provide strong evidence that galaxies build up uniformly over the first 3 Gyr of cosmic time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use the ultra-deep HUDF09 and the deep Early Release Science data from the HST WFC3/IR camera, along with the wide-area Spitzer/IRAC data from GOODS-S to derive spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of star-forming galaxies from the rest-frame UV to the optical over a wide luminosity range (M1500 ∼ –21 to M1500 ∼ –18) from z ∼ 7 to z ∼ 4. The sample contains ∼400 z ∼ 4, ∼120 z ∼ 5, ∼60 z ∼ 6, and 36 z ∼ 7 galaxies. Median stacking enables the first comprehensive SED study of very faint high-z galaxies at multiple redshifts (e.g., [3.6] = 27.4 ± 0.1 AB mag for the M1500 ∼ –18 sources at z ∼ 4). At z ∼ 4, we study the stacked SEDs over a range of 5 mag reaching down to ∼0.06L*z = 4. We use all available SEDs and template fits to derive rest-frame UV-to-optical colors (U – V) at all redshifts and luminosities. We find that this color does not vary significantly with redshift at a fixed luminosity. The UV-to-optical color does show a weak trend with luminosity, becoming redder at higher luminosities. This is most likely due to dust. At z ≳ 5, we find blue [3.6]-[4.5] colors ∼ –0.3 mag that are most likely due to rest-frame optical emission lines contributing to the flux in the IRAC filter bandpasses. Such contributions would lower both ages and masses by ∼2 ×. The scatter in our derived SEDs remains large, but the results are most consistent with a lack of any evolution in the SEDs with redshift at a given luminosity. The uniformity of the SEDs suggests a self-similar mode of evolution over a timespan from 0.7 Gyr to 1.5 Gyr after the big bang that encompasses very substantial growth in the stellar mass density in the universe (from ∼4 × 106 to ∼2 × 107M☼ Mpc–3). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present specific star formation rates (sSFRs) for 40 ultraviolet (UV)-bright galaxies at z ∼ 7–8 observed as part of the Reionization Era Bright Emission Line Survey (REBELS) Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) large programme. The sSFRs are derived using improved star formation rate (SFR) calibrations and spectral energy distribution (SED)-based stellar masses, made possible by measurements of far-infrared (FIR) continuum emission and [C  ii ]-based spectroscopic redshifts. The median sSFR of the sample is |$18_{-5}^{+7}$|  Gyr−1, significantly larger than literature measurements lacking constraints in the FIR, reflecting the larger obscured SFRs derived from the dust continuum relative to that implied by the UV+optical SED. We suggest that such differences may reflect spatial variations in dust across these luminous galaxies, with the component dominating the FIR distinct from that dominating the UV. We demonstrate that the inferred stellar masses (and hence sSFRs) are strongly dependent on the assumed star formation history in reionization-era galaxies. When large sSFR galaxies (a population that is common at z > 6) are modelled with non-parametric star formation histories, the derived stellar masses can increase by an order of magnitude relative to constant star formation models, owing to the presence of a significant old stellar population that is outshined by the recent burst. The [C  ii ] line widths in the largest sSFR systems are often very broad, suggesting dynamical masses capable of accommodating an old stellar population suggested by non-parametric models. Regardless of these systematic uncertainties among derived parameters, we find that sSFRs increase rapidly toward higher redshifts for massive galaxies (9.6 < log (M */M⊙) < 9.8), evolving as (1 + z)1.7 ± 0.3, broadly consistent with expectations from the evolving baryon accretion rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report 18 dust continuum detections (≥3.3σ) at ∼88 and 158  |$\mu{\rm m}$| out of 49 ultraviolet (UV)-bright galaxies (M UV < −21.3 mag) at |$z$| > 6.5, observed by the Cycle-7 Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Large Program, Reionization-Era Bright Emission Line Survey (REBELS) and its pilot programs. This has more than tripled the number of dust continuum detections known at |$z$| > 6.5. Out of these 18 detections, 12 are reported for the first time as part of REBELS. In addition, 15 of the dust continuum detected galaxies also show a [C  ii ] |$_{\rm 158\,{\rm \mu m}}$| emission line, providing us with accurate redshifts. We anticipate more line emission detections from six targets (including three continuum detected targets) where observations are still ongoing. We estimate that all of the sources have an infrared (IR) luminosity (L IR) in a range of |$3\!-\!8 \times 10^{11}\, {\rm L_\odot }$|⁠ , except for one with |$L_{\rm IR} = 1.5^{+0.8}_{-0.5} \times 10^{12}\, \, {\rm L_{\odot }}$|⁠. Their fraction of obscured star formation is significant at |${\gtrsim} 50{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$|⁠ , despite being UV-selected galaxies. Some of the dust continuum detected galaxies show spatial offsets (∼0.5–1.5 arcsec) between the rest-UV and far-IR emission peaks. These separations could imply spatially decoupled phases of obscured and unobscured star formation, but a higher spatial resolution observation is required to confirm this. REBELS offers the best available statistical constraints on obscured star formation in UV-luminous galaxies at |$z$| > 6.5. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present new [ |${\rm O\, {\small III}}$| ] 88- |$\mu \mathrm{{m}}$| observations of five bright z  ∼ 7 Lyman-break galaxies spectroscopically confirmed by ALMA through [ |${\rm C\, {\small II}}$| ] 158 |$\mu \mathrm{{m}}$|⁠ , unlike recent [ |${\rm O\, {\small III}}$| ] detections where Lyman  α was used. This nearly doubles the sample of Epoch of Reionization galaxies with robust (5 σ) [ |${\rm C\, {\small II}}$| ] and [ |${\rm O\, {\small III}}$| ] detections. We perform a multiwavelength comparison with new deep HST images of the rest-frame UV, whose compact morphology aligns well with [ |${\rm O\, {\small III}}$| ] tracing ionized gas. In contrast, we find more spatially extended [ |${\rm C\, {\small II}}$| ] emission likely produced in neutral gas, as indicated by an [ |${\rm N\, {\small II}}$| ] 205- |$\mu \mathrm{{m}}$| non-detection in one source. We find a correlation between the optical |${[{\rm O\, {\small III}}]}+ {\mathrm{H\,\beta }}$| equivalent width and [ |${\rm O\, {\small III}}$| ]/[ |${\rm C\, {\small II}}$| ], as seen in local metal-poor dwarf galaxies. cloudy models of a nebula of typical density harbouring a young stellar population with a high-ionization parameter adequately reproduce the observed lines. Surprisingly, however, our models fail to reproduce the strength of [ |${\rm O\, {\small III}}$| ] 88- |$\mu \mathrm{{m}}$|⁠ , unless we assume an α /Fe enhancement and near-solar nebular oxygen abundance. On spatially resolved scales, we find [ |${\rm O\, {\small III}}$| ]/[ |${\rm C\, {\small II}}$| ] shows a tentative anticorrelation with infrared excess, L IR/ L UV, also seen on global scales in the local Universe. Finally, we introduce the far-infrared spectral energy distribution fitting code mercurius to show that dust-continuum measurements of one source appear to favour a low dust temperature and correspondingly high dust mass. This implies a high stellar metallicity yield and may point towards the need of dust production or grain-growth mechanisms beyond supernovae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the identification of radio (0.144–3 GHz) and mid-, far-infrared, and sub-mm (24–850μm) emission at the position of one of 41 UV-bright (⁠|$\mathrm{M_{\mathrm{UV}}}^{ }\lesssim -21.25$|⁠) z ≃ 6.6–6.9 Lyman-break galaxy candidates in the 1.5 deg2 COSMOS field. This source, COS-87259, exhibits a sharp flux discontinuity (factor >3) between two narrow/intermediate bands at 9450 and 9700 Å and is undetected in all nine bands blueward of 9600 Å, as expected from a Lyman alpha break at z ≃ 6.8. The full multiwavelength (X-ray through radio) data of COS-87529 can be self-consistently explained by a very massive (M * = 1010.8 M⊙) and extremely red (rest-UV slope β = −0.59) z ≃ 6.8 galaxy with hyperluminous infrared emission (L IR = 1013.6 L⊙) powered by both an intense burst of highly obscured star formation (SFR ≈ 1800 M⊙ yr−1) and an obscured (⁠|$\tau _{_{\mathrm{9.7\mu m}}} = 7.7\pm 2.5$|⁠) radio-loud (L1.4 GHz ≈ 1025.4 W Hz−1) active galactic nucleus (AGN). The radio emission is compact (1.04 ± 0.12 arcsec) and exhibits an ultra-steep spectrum between 1.32 and 3 GHz (⁠|$\alpha =-1.57^{+0.22}_{-0.21}$|⁠) that flattens at lower frequencies (⁠|$\alpha = -0.86^{+0.22}_{-0.16}$| between 0.144 and 1.32 GHz), consistent with known z > 4 radio galaxies. We also demonstrate that COS-87259 may reside in a significant (11×) galaxy overdensity, as common for systems hosting radio-loud AGN. While we find that low-redshift solutions to the optical + near-infrared data are not preferred, a spectroscopic redshift will ultimately be required to establish the true nature of COS-87259 beyond any doubt. If confirmed to lie at z ≃ 6.8, the properties of COS-87259 would be consistent with a picture wherein AGN and highly obscured star formation activity are fairly common among very massive (M * > 1010 M⊙) reionization-era galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We calculate the major pair fraction and derive the major merger fraction and rate for 82 massive galaxies at utilizing deep Hubble Space Telescope NICMOS data taken in the GOODS north and south fields. For the first time, our NICMOS data provide imaging with sufficient angular resolution and depth to collate a sufficiently large sample of massive galaxies at to reliably measure their pair fraction history. We find strong evidence that the pair fraction of massive galaxies evolves with redshift. We calculate a pair fraction of for our whole sample at . Specifically, we fit a power-law function of the form to a combined sample of low-redshift data from Conselice et al. (2007) and recently acquired high-redshift data from the GOODS NICMOS survey. We find a best fit to the free parameters of and . We go on to fit a theoretically motivated Press–Schechter curve to this data. This Press–Schechter fit, and the data, shows no sign of levelling off or turning over, implying that the merger fraction of massive galaxies continues to rise with redshift out to . Since previous work has established that the merger fraction for lower mass galaxies turns over at , this is evidence that higher mass galaxies experience more mergers earlier than their lower mass counterparts, i.e. a galaxy assembly downsizing. Finally, we calculate a merger rate at of Gpc−3 Gyr−1, which experiences no significant change to Gpc−3 Gyr−1 at . This corresponds to an average galaxy experiencing 1.7 ± 0.5 mergers between and 0. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) Spectroscopic Survey in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field (ASPECS) Band 6 scan (212–272 GHz) covers potential [C ii ] emission in galaxies at 6 ≤ z ≤ 8 throughout a 2.9 arcmin2 area. By selecting on known Lyα emitters (LAEs) and photometric dropout galaxies in the field, we perform targeted searches down to a 5σ [C ii ] luminosity depth L[C II ] ∼ 2.0 × 108L⊙, corresponding roughly to star formation rates (SFRs) of 10–20 M⊙ yr−1 when applying a locally calibrated conversion for star-forming galaxies, yielding zero detections. While the majority of galaxies in this sample are characterized by lower SFRs, the resulting upper limits on [C ii ] luminosity in these sources are consistent with the current literature sample of targeted ALMA observations of z = 6–7 LAEs and Lyman-break galaxies (LBGs), as well as the locally calibrated relations between L[C ii ] and SFR—with the exception of a single [C ii ]-deficient, UV-luminous LBG. We also perform a blind search for [C ii ]-bright galaxies that may have been missed by optical selections, resulting in an upper limit on the cumulative number density of [C ii ] sources with L[C II ] > 2.0 × 108L⊙ (5σ) to be less than 1.8 × 10−4 Mpc−3 (90% confidence level). At this luminosity depth and volume coverage, we present an observed evolution of the [C ii ] luminosity function from z = 6–8 to z ∼ 0 by comparing the ASPECS measurement to literature results at lower redshift. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reionization-era galaxies tend to exhibit weak Ly α emission, likely reflecting attenuation from an increasingly neutral IGM. Recent observations have begun to reveal exceptions to this picture, with strong Ly α emission now known in four of the most massive z = 7–9 galaxies in the CANDELS fields, all of which also exhibit intense [O  iii ]+H β emission (EW > 800 Å). To better understand why Ly α is anomalously strong in a subset of massive z ≃ 7–9 galaxies, we have initiated an MMT/Binospec survey targeting a larger sample (N = 22) of similarly luminous (≃1–6 L |$^{\ast }_{\mathrm{UV}}$|⁠) z  ≃ 7 galaxies selected over very wide-area fields (∼3 deg2). We confidently (>7σ) detect Ly α in 78 per cent (7/9) of galaxies with strong [O  iii ]+H β emission (EW > 800 Å) as opposed to only 8 per cent (1/12) of galaxies with more moderate (EW = 200–800 Å) [O  iii ]+H β. We argue that the higher Ly α EWs of the strong [O  iii ]+H β population likely reflect enhanced ionizing photon production efficiency owing to their large sSFRs (≳30 Gyr−1). We also find evidence that Ly α transmission from massive galaxies declines less rapidly over 6 < z < 7 than in low-mass lensed systems. In particular, our data suggest no strong evolution in Ly α transmission, consistent with a picture wherein massive z  ≃ 7 galaxies often reside in large ionized regions. We detect three closely separated (R = 1.7 physical Mpc) z  ≃ 7 Ly α emitters in our sample, conceivably tracing a large ionized structure that is consistent with this picture. We detect tentative evidence for an overdensity in this region, implying a large ionizing photon budget in the surrounding volume. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the CO excitation and interstellar medium (ISM) conditions in a cold gas mass-selected sample of 22 star-forming galaxies at z = 0.46–3.60, observed as part of the ALMA Spectroscopic Survey in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field (ASPECS). Combined with Very Large Array follow-up observations, we detect a total of 34 CO transitions with J = 1 up to 8 (and an additional 21 upper limits, up to J = 10) and 6 and transitions (and 12 upper limits). The CO(2–1) and CO(3–2)-selected galaxies, at and 2.5, respectively, exhibit a range in excitation in their mid-J = 4, 5 and high-J = 7, 8 lines, on average lower than (-brighter) BzK-color- and submillimeter-selected galaxies at similar redshifts. The former implies that a warm ISM component is not necessarily prevalent in gas mass-selected galaxies at. We use stacking and Large Velocity Gradient models to measure and predict the average CO ladders at z < 2 and z ≥ 2, finding and , respectively. From the models, we infer that the galaxies at z ≥ 2 have intrinsically higher excitation than those at z < 2. This fits a picture in which the global excitation is driven by an increase in the star formation rate surface density of galaxies with redshift. We derive a neutral atomic carbon abundance of , comparable to the Milky Way and main-sequence galaxies at similar redshifts, and fairly high densities (≥104 cm−3), consistent with the low-J CO excitation. Our results imply a decrease in the cosmic molecular gas mass density at z ≥ 2 compared to previous ASPECS measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We combine the recent determination of the evolution of the cosmic density of molecular gas (H2) using deep, volumetric surveys, with previous estimates of the cosmic density of stellar mass, star formation rate and atomic gas (H i), to constrain the evolution of baryons associated with galaxies averaged over cosmic time and space. The cosmic H i and H2 densities are roughly equal at z ∼ 1.5. The H2 density then decreases by a factor to today's value, whereas the H i density stays approximately constant. The stellar mass density is increasing continuously with time and surpasses that of the total gas density (H i and H2) at redshift z ∼ 1.5. The growth in stellar mass cannot be accounted for by the decrease in cosmic H2 density, necessitating significant accretion of additional gas onto galaxies. With the new H2 constraints, we postulate and put observational constraints on a two-step gas accretion process: (i) a net infall of ionized gas from the intergalactic/circumgalactic medium to refuel the extended H i reservoirs, and (ii) a net inflow of H i and subsequent conversion to H2 in the galaxy centers. Both the infall and inflow rate densities have decreased by almost an order of magnitude since z ∼ 2. Assuming that the current trends continue, the cosmic molecular gas density will further decrease by about a factor of two over the next 5 Gyr, the stellar mass will increase by approximately 10%, and cosmic star formation activity will decline steadily toward zero, as the gas infall and accretion shut down. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a characterization of the physical properties of a sample of 35 securely detected, dusty galaxies in the deep ALMA 1.2 mm image obtained as part of the ALMA Spectroscopic Survey in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field (ASPECS) Large Program. This sample is complemented by 26 additional sources identified via an optical/infrared source positional prior. Using their well-characterized spectral energy distributions, we derive median stellar masses and star formation rates (SFR) of and 30 M☉ yr−1, respectively, and interquartile ranges of (2.4–11.7) × 1010 M☉ and 20–50 M☉ yr−1. We derive a median spectroscopic redshift of 1.8 with an interquartile range 1.1–2.6, significantly lower than submillimeter galaxies detected in shallower, wide-field surveys. We find that 59% ± 13%, 6% ± 4%, and 34% ± 9% of our sources are within, above, and below±0.4 dex from the SFR–stellar-mass relation or main sequence (MS), respectively. The ASPECS galaxies closely follow the SFR–molecular gas mass relation and other previously established scaling relations, confirming a factor of five increase of the gas-to-stellar-mass ratio from z = 0.5 to 2.5 and a mild evolution of the gas depletion timescales with a typical value of 0.7 Gyr at z = 1–3. ASPECS galaxies located significantly below the MS, a poorly exploited parameter space, have low gas-to-stellar-mass ratios of ∼0.1–0.2 and long depletion timescales >1 Gyr. Galaxies along the MS dominate the cosmic density of molecular gas at all redshifts. Systems above the MS have an increasing contribution to the total gas reservoirs from z < 1 to z = 2.5, while the opposite is found for galaxies below the MS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the results from the 1.2 mm continuum image obtained as part of the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array Spectroscopic Survey in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field. The 1.2 mm continuum image has a size of 2.9 (4.2) arcmin2 within a primary beam response of 50% (10%) and an rms value of. We detect 35 sources at high significance (Fidelity ≥0.5); 32 have well-characterized near-infrared Hubble Space Telescope counterparts. We estimate the 1.2 mm number counts to flux levels of in two different ways: we first use the detected sources to constrain the number counts and find a significant flattening of the counts below Sν ∼ 0.1 mJy. In a second approach, we constrain the number counts using a probability of deflection statistics (P(D)) analysis. For this latter approach, we describe new methods to accurately measure the noise in interferometric imaging (employing jackknifing in the cube and in the visibility plane). This independent measurement confirms the flattening of the number counts. Our analysis of the differential number counts shows that we are detecting ∼93% (∼100% if we include the lower fidelity detections) of the total continuum dust emission associated with galaxies in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field. The ancillary data allow us to study the dependence of the 1.2 mm number counts on redshift (z = 0−4), galaxy dust mass (), stellar mass (), and star formation rate (). In an accompanying paper we show that the number counts are crucial to constrain galaxy evolution models and the understanding of star-forming galaxies at high redshift. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While low-luminosity galaxies dominate number counts at all redshifts, their contribution to cosmic reionization is poorly understood due to a lack of knowledge of their physical properties. We isolate a sample of 35 z ≈ 4–5 continuum-faint Lyman-α emitters from deep VLT/MUSE spectroscopy and directly measure their H α emission using stacked Spitzer /IRAC Ch. 1 photometry. Based on Hubble Space Telescope imaging, we determine that the average UV continuum magnitude is fainter than −16 (≈ 0.01 L ⋆), implying a median Lyman-α equivalent width of 259 Å. By combining the H α measurement with the UV magnitude, we determine the ionizing photon production efficiency, ξion, a first for such faint galaxies. The measurement of log10 (ξion [Hz erg−1]) = 26.28 (⁠|$^{+0.28}_{-0.40}$|⁠) is in excess of literature measurements of both continuum- and emission line-selected samples, implying a more efficient production of ionizing photons in these lower luminosity, Lyman-α-selected systems. We conclude that this elevated efficiency can be explained by stellar populations with metallicities between 4 × 10−4 and 0.008, with light-weighted ages less than 3 Myr. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use Hubble Space Telescope (HST) imaging and near-infrared spectroscopy from Keck/Multi-Object Spectrometer For Infra-Red Exploration (MOSFIRE) to study the substructure around the progenitor of a Milky Way-mass galaxy in the Hubble Frontier Fields (HFF). Specifically, we study an |$r_\mathrm{ e} = 40^{+70}_{-30}$|  pc, |$M_{\star } \sim 10^{8.2} \, \mathrm{M}_{\odot }$| rest-frame ultraviolet luminous 'clump' at a projected distance of ∼100 pc from a M ⋆ ∼ 109.8 M⊙ galaxy at z = 2.36 with a magnification μ = 5.21. We measure the star formation history of the clump and galaxy by jointly modelling the broad-band spectral energy distribution from HST photometry and Hα from MOSFIRE spectroscopy. Given our inferred properties (e.g. mass, metallicity, dust) of the clump and galaxy, we explore scenarios in which the clump formed in situ (e.g. a star-forming complex) or ex situ (e.g. a dwarf galaxy being accreted). If it formed in situ , we conclude that the clump is likely a single entity as opposed to a aggregation of smaller star clusters, making it one of the most dense star clusters catalogued. If it formed ex situ , then we are witnessing an accretion event with a 1:40 stellar mass ratio. However, our data alone are not informative enough to distinguish between in situ and ex situ scenarios to a high level of significance. We posit that the addition of high-fidelity metallicity information, such as [O  iii ] 4363 Å, which can be detected at modest signal-to-noise ratio with only a few hours of James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)/Near-Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec) time, may be a powerful discriminant. We suggest that studying larger samples of moderately lensed substructures across cosmic time can provide unique insight into the hierarchical formation of galaxies like the Milky Way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent observations of lensed sources have shown that the faintest (⁠|$M_{\mathrm{UV}} \approx -15\, \mathrm{mag}$|⁠) galaxies observed at |$z$|  = 6−8 appear to be extremely compact. Some of them have inferred sizes of less than 40 pc for stellar masses between 106 and |$10^7\, {\mathrm{M}}_{\odot }$|⁠, comparable to individual super star clusters or star cluster complexes at low redshift. High-redshift, low-mass galaxies are expected to show a clumpy, irregular morphology and if star clusters form in each of these well-separated clumps, the observed galaxy size would be much larger than the size of an individual star-forming region. As supernova explosions impact the galaxy with a minimum delay time that exceeds the time required to form a massive star cluster, other processes are required to explain the absence of additional massive star-forming regions. In this work, we investigate whether the radiation of a young massive star cluster can suppress the formation of other detectable clusters within the same galaxy already before supernova feedback can affect the galaxy. We find that in low-mass (⁠|$M_{200} \lesssim 10^{10}\, {\mathrm{M}}_{\odot }$|⁠) haloes, the radiation from a compact star-forming region with an initial mass of |$10^{7}\, {\mathrm{M}}_{\odot }$| can keep gas clumps with Jeans masses larger than |${\approx } 10^{7}\, {\mathrm{M}}_{\odot }$| warm and ionized throughout the galaxy. In this picture, the small intrinsic sizes measured in the faintest |$z$|  = 6−8 galaxies are a natural consequence of the strong radiation field that stabilizes massive gas clumps. A prediction of this mechanism is that the escape fraction for ionizing radiation is high for the extremely compact, high- |$z$| sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep optical spectroscopic surveys of galaxies provide a unique opportunity to investigate rest-frame ultra-violet (UV) emission line properties of galaxies at z ∼ 2 − 4.5. Here we combine VLT/MUSE Guaranteed Time Observations of the Hubble Deep Field South, Ultra Deep Field, COSMOS, and several quasar fields with other publicly available data from VLT/VIMOS and VLT/FORS2 to construct a catalogue of He II λ1640 emitters at z ≳ 2. The deepest areas of our MUSE pointings reach a 3σ line flux limit of 3.1 × 10−19 erg s−1 cm−2. After discarding broad-line active galactic nuclei, we find 13 He II λ1640 detections from MUSE with a median MUV = −20.1 and 21 tentative He II λ1640 detections from other public surveys. Excluding Lyα, all except two galaxies in our sample show at least one other rest-UV emission line, with C III] λ1907, λ1909 being the most prominent. We use multi-wavelength data available in the Hubble legacy fields to derive basic galaxy properties of our sample through spectral energy distribution fitting techniques. Taking advantage of the high-quality spectra obtained by MUSE (∼10 − 30 h of exposure time per pointing), we use photo-ionisation models to study the rest-UV emission line diagnostics of the He II λ1640 emitters. Line ratios of our sample can be reproduced by moderately sub-solar photo-ionisation models, however, we find that including effects of binary stars lead to degeneracies in most free parameters. Even after considering extra ionising photons produced by extreme sub-solar metallicity binary stellar models, photo-ionisation models are unable to reproduce rest-frame He II λ1640 equivalent widths (∼0.2 − 10 Å), thus additional mechanisms are necessary in models to match the observed He II λ1640 properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the dependence of galaxy clustering at z ∼ 4–7 on UV luminosity and stellar mass. Our sample consists of ∼10 000 Lyman-break galaxies in the eXtreme Deep Field (XDF) and Cosmic Assembly Near-infrared Deep Extragalatic Legacy Survey (CANDELS) fields. As part of our analysis, the M ⋆ –M UVrelation is estimated for the sample, which is found to have a nearly linear slope of dlog10 M ⋆/d M UV∼ 0.44. We subsequently measure the angular correlation function and bias in different stellar mass and luminosity bins. We focus on comparing the clustering dependence on these two properties. While UV luminosity is only related to recent starbursts of a galaxy, stellar mass reflects the integrated build-up of the whole star formation history, which should make it more tightly correlated with halo mass. Hence, the clustering segregation with stellar mass is expected to be larger than with luminosity. However, our measurements suggest that the segregation with luminosity is larger with |${\simeq } 90{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$| confidence (neglecting contributions from systematic errors). We compare this unexpected result with predictions from the Meraxes semi-analytic galaxy formation model. Interestingly, the model reproduces the observed angular correlation functions and also suggests stronger clustering segregation with luminosity. The comparison between our observations and the model provides evidence of multiple halo occupation in the small-scale clustering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Star-forming galaxies have been found to follow a relatively tight relation between stellar mass (M*) and star formation rate (SFR), dubbed the "star formation sequence". A turnover in the sequence has been observed, where galaxies with M* <  1010 M⊙ follow a steeper relation than their higher mass counterparts, suggesting that the low-mass slope is (nearly) linear. In this paper, we characterise the properties of the low-mass end of the star formation sequence between 7 ≤ log M*[M⊙]  ≤  10.5 at redshift 0.11 <  z  <   0.91. We use the deepest MUSE observations of the Hubble Ultra Deep Field and the Hubble Deep Field South to construct a sample of 179 star-forming galaxies with high signal-to-noise emission lines. Dust-corrected SFRs are determined from Hβ λ4861 and Hα λ6563. We model the star formation sequence with a Gaussian distribution around a hyperplane between logM*, logSFR, and log(1 + z), to simultaneously constrain the slope, redshift evolution, and intrinsic scatter. We find a sub-linear slope for the low-mass regime where log SFR [M⊙yr−1] = 0.83+0.07−0.06 log M*[M⊙]+1.74+0.66−0.68 log(1 + z) log SFR [ M ⊙ yr − 1 ] = 0. 83 − 0.06 + 0.07 log M ∗ [ M ⊙ ] + 1. 74 − 0.68 + 0.66 log (1 + z) $ \log \text{ SFR}[M_{\odot}\,{\mathrm{yr}}^{-1}] = 0.83^{+0.07}_{-0.06}\log{M_{*}}[M_{\odot}] + {1.74^{+0.66}_{-0.68}}{\log (1+z)} $ , increasing with redshift. We recover an intrinsic scatter in the relation of σintr = 0.44+0.05−0.04 σ intr = 0. 44 − 0.04 + 0.05 $ \sigma_{\text{ intr}}={0.44^{+0.05}_{-0.04}} $ , dex, larger than typically found at higher masses. As both hydrodynamical simulations and (semi-)analytical models typically favour a steeper slope in the low-mass regime, our results provide new constraints on the feedback processes which operate preferentially in low-mass halos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a measurement of the fraction of Lyman α (Ly α) emitters (XLy α) amongst HST continuum-selected galaxies at 3 < z< 6 with the Multi-Unit Spectroscopic Explorer (MUSE) on the VLT. Making use of the first 24 MUSE-Wide pointings in GOODS-South, each having an integration time of 1 h, we detect 100 Ly α emitters and find XLy α ≳ 0.5 for most of the redshift range covered, with 29 per cent of the Ly α sample exhibiting rest equivalent widths (rest-EWs) ≤ 15 Å. Adopting a range of rest-EW cuts (0-75 Å), we find no evidence of a dependence of XLy α on either redshift or ultraviolet luminosity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study the production rate of ionizing photons of a sample of 588 Hα emitters (HAEs) and 160 Lyman-α emitters (LAEs) at z = 2.2 in the COSMOS field in order to assess the implied emissivity from galaxies, based on their ultraviolet (UV) luminosity. By exploring the rest-frame Lyman Continuum (LyC) with GALEX/NUV data, we find fesc < 2.8 (6.4) per cent through median (mean) stacking. By combining the Hα luminosity density with intergalactic medium emissivity measurements from absorption studies, we find a globally averaged of 5.9+14.5-4.2 per cent at z = 2.2 if we assume HAEs are the only source of ionizing photons. We find similarly low values of the global at z ≈ 3-5, also ruling out a high at z < 5. These low escape fractions allow us to measure ξion, the number of produced ionizing photons per unit UV luminosity, and investigate how this depends on galaxy properties. We find a typical ξion ≈ 1024.77 ±0.04 Hz erg-1 for HAEs and ξion ≈ 1025.14 ±0.09 Hz erg-1 for LAEs. LAEs and low-mass HAEs at z = 2.2 show similar values of ξion as typically assumed in the reionization era, while the typical HAE is three times less ionizing. Due to an increasing ξion with increasing EW(Hα), ξion likely increases with redshift. This evolution alone is fully in line with the observed evolution of ξion between z ≈ 2 and 5, indicating a typical value of ξion ≈ 1025.4 Hz erg-1 in the reionization era. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We discuss new Keck/MOSFIRE spectroscopic observations of four luminous galaxies at z ... 7-9 selected to have intense optical line emission by Roberts-Borsani et al. Previous followup has revealed Lyα in two of the four galaxies. Our new MOSFIRE observations confirm that Lyα is present in the entire sample. We detect Lyα emission in the galaxy COS-zs7-1, confirming its redshift as zLyα = 7.154, and we detect Lyα in EGS-zs8-2 at zLyα = 7.477, verifying an earlier tentative detection. The ubiquity of Lyα in this sample is puzzling given that the IGM is expected to be significantly neutral over 7 < z < 9. To investigate this result in more detail, we have initiated a campaign to target UV metal lines in the four Lyα emitters as a probe of both the ionizing field and the Lyα velocity offset at early times. Here we present the detection of C III] emission in the z = 7.73 galaxy EGS-zs8-1, requiring an intense radiation field and moderately low metallicity. We argue that the radiation field is likely to affect the local environment, increasing the transmission of Lyα through the galaxy.Moreover, the centroid of CIII] indicates that Lyα is redshifted by 340 km s-1. This velocity offset is larger than that seen in less luminous systems, providing an explanation for the transmission of Lyα emission through the IGM. Since the transmission is further enhanced by the likelihood that such systems are also situated in large ionized bubbles, the visibility of Lyα at z > 7 is expected to be strongly luminosity-dependent, with transmission accelerated in systems with intense star formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report observations of three gravitationally lensed supernovae (SNe) in the Cluster Lensing And Supernova survey with Hubble (CLASH) Multi-Cycle Treasury program. These objects, SN CLO12Car (z = 1.28), SN CLN12Did (z = 0.85), and SN CLA11Tib (z = 1.14), are located behind three different clusters, MACSJ1720.2+3536 (z = 0.391), RXJ1532.9+3021 (z = 0.345), and A383 (z = 0.187), respectively. Each SN was detected in Hubble Space Telescope optical and infrared images. Based on photometric classification, we find that SNe CLO12Car and CLN12Did are likely to be Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia), while the classification of SN CLA11Tib is inconclusive. Using multi-color light-curve fits to determine a standardized SN Ia luminosity distance, we infer that SN CLO12Car was ∼1.0 ± 0.2 mag brighter than field SNe Ia at a similar redshift and ascribe this to gravitational lens magnification. Similarly, SN CLN12Did is ∼0.2 ± 0.2 mag brighter than field SNe Ia. We derive independent estimates of the predicted magnification from CLASH strong+weak-lensing maps of the clusters (in magnitude units, 2.5 log10μ): 0.83 ± 0.16 mag for SN CLO12Car, 0.28 ± 0.08 mag for SN CLN12Did, and 0.43 ± 0.11 mag for SN CLA11Tib. The two SNe Ia provide a new test of the cluster lens model predictions: we find that the magnifications based on the SN Ia brightness and those predicted by the lens maps are consistent. Our results herald the promise of future observations of samples of cluster-lensed SNe Ia (from the ground or space) to help illuminate the dark-matter distribution in clusters of galaxies, through the direct determination of absolute magnifications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present an analysis of an H160-selected photometric catalog of galaxies in the Hubble Ultra-Deep Field, using imaging from the WFC3/IR camera on the Hubble Space Telescope in combination with archival ultraviolet, optical, and near-infrared imaging. Using these data, we measure the spectral energy distributions of ∼1500 galaxies to a limiting H160 magnitude of 27.8, from which we fit photometric redshifts and stellar population estimates for all galaxies with well-determined Spitzer IRAC fluxes, allowing for the determination of the cumulative mass function within the range 1 < z < 6. By selecting samples of galaxies at a constant cumulative number density, we are able to explore the coevolution of stellar masses and star formation rates (SFRs) for progenitor galaxies and their descendants from z ∼ 6. We find a steady increase in the SFRs of galaxies at constant number density from z ∼ 6 to z ∼ 3, accompanied by gradually declining specific star formation rates (sSFRs) during this same period. The peak epoch of star formation is also found to shift to later times for galaxies with increasing number densities, in agreement with the expectations from cosmic downsizing. The observed SFRs can fully account for the mass growth to z ∼ 2 among galaxies with cumulative number densities greater than 10–3.5 Mpc–3. For galaxies with a lower constant number density (higher mean mass), we find the observed stellar masses are ∼three times greater than that which may be accounted for by the observed star formation alone at late times, implying that growth from mergers plays an important role at z < 2. We additionally observe a decreasing sSFR, equivalent to approximately one order of magnitude, from z ∼ 6 to z ∼ 2 among galaxies with number densities less than 10–3.5 Mpc–3, along with significant evidence that at any redshift the sSFR is higher for galaxies at higher number density. The combination of these findings can qualitatively explain the previous findings of a specific star formation rate plateau at high redshift. Tracing the evolution of the fraction of quiescent galaxies for samples matched in cumulative number density over this redshift range, we find no unambiguous examples of quiescent galaxies at z > 4. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using stellar kinematics measurements,we investigate the growth of massive,quiescent galaxies from z ~ 2 to today. We present X-Shooter spectra from the UV to NIR and dynamical mass measurements of five quiescent massive (>1011 M☉) galaxies at z ~ 2. This triples the sample of z > 1.5 galaxies with well-constrained (σ < 100 km s-1) velocity dispersion measurements. From spectral population synthesis modeling we find that these galaxies have stellar ages that range from 0.5 to 2 Gyr,with no signs of ongoing star formation. We measure velocity dispersions (290-450 km s-1) from stellar absorption lines and find that they are 1.6-2.1 times higher than those of galaxies in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey at the same mass. Sizes are measured using GALFIT from Hubble Space Telescope Wide Field Camera 3 H160 and UDS K-band images. The dynamical masses correspond well to the spectral energy distribution based stellar masses,with dynamical masses that are ~15% higher.We find that M"/Mdyn may decrease slightly with time,which could reflect the increase of the dark matter fraction within an increasing effective radius. We combine different stellar kinematic studies from the literature and examine the structural evolution from z ~2 to z ~0: we confirm that at fixed dynamical mass,the effective radius increases by a factor of ~2.8,and the velocity dispersion decreases by a factor of ~1.7. The mass density within one effective radius decreases by a factor of ~20, while within a fixed physical radius (1 kpc) it decreases only mildly (factor of ~2). When we allow for an evolving mass limit by selecting a population of galaxies at fixed number density,a stronger size growth with time is found (factor of ~4),velocity dispersion decreases by a factor of ~1.4,and interestingly, the mass density within 1 kpc is consistent with no evolution. This finding suggests that massive quiescent galaxies at z ~ 2 grow inside out, consistent with the expectations from minor mergers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present uncontaminated rest-frame u - R colors of 78 X-ray-selected active galactic nucleus (AGN) hosts at 0.5 < z < i.5 in the Chandra Deep Fields measured with Hubble Space Telescope (HST)/Advanced Camera for Surveys/NICMOS and Very Large Telescope/ISAAC imaging. We also present spatially resolved NUV - R color gradients for a subsample of AGN hosts imaged by HST/Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3). Integrated, uncorrected photometry is not reliable for comparing the mean properties of soft and hard AGN host galaxies at z ~ 1 due to color contamination from point-source AGN emission. We use a cloning simulation to develop a calibration between concentration and this color contamination and use this to correct host galaxy colors. The mean u - R color of the unobscured/soft hosts beyond ~6 kpc is statistically equivalent to that of the obscured/hard hosts (the soft sources are 0.09 4± 0.16 mag bluer). Furthermore, the rest-frame V - J colors of the obscured and unobscured hosts beyond ~6 kpc are statistically equivalent, suggesting that the two populations have similar distributions of dust extinction. For the WFC3/infrared sample, the mean NUV - R color gradients of unobscured and obscured sources differ by less than ~0.5 mag for r > 1.1 kpc. These three observations imply that AGN obscuration is uncorrelated with the star formation rate beyond ~1 kpc. These observations favor a unification scenario for intermediate-luminosity AGNs in which obscuration is determined geometrically. Scenarios in which the majority of intermediate-luminosity AGNs at z ~ 1 are undergoing rapid, galaxy-wide quenching due to AGN-driven feedback processes are disfavored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Motivated by recent observational studies of the environment of QSOs, we have used the Millennium Run (MR) simulations to construct a very large mock redshift survey of star-forming galaxies at . We use this simulated survey to study the relation between density enhancements in the distribution of i775-dropouts and Lyα emitters, and their relation to the most massive haloes and protocluster regions at . Our simulation predicts significant variations in surface density across the sky with some voids and filaments extending over scales of 1°, much larger than probed by current surveys. Approximately one-third of all haloes hosting i-dropouts brighter than mag become part of galaxy clusters. i-dropouts associated with protocluster regions are found in regions where the surface density is enhanced on scales ranging from a few to several tens of arcminutes on the sky. We analyse two structures of i-dropouts and Lyα emitters observed with the Subaru Telescope and show that these structures must be the seeds of massive clusters in formation. In striking contrast, six QSO fields observed with Hubble Space Telescope show no significant enhancements in their i775-dropout number counts. With the present data, we cannot rule out the QSOs being hosted by the most massive haloes. However, neither can we confirm this widely used assumption. We conclude by giving detailed recommendations for the interpretation and planning of observations by current and future ground- and space-based instruments that will shed new light on questions related to the large-scale structure at . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The most massive galaxies and the richest clusters are believed to have emerged from regions with the largest enhancements of mass density relative to the surrounding space. Distant radio galaxies may pinpoint the locations of the ancestors of rich clusters, because they are massive systems associated with ‘overdensities’ of galaxies that are bright in the Lyman-a line of hydrogen. A powerful technique for detecting high-redshift galaxies is to search for the characteristic ‘Lyman break’ feature in the galaxy colour, at wavelengths just shortwards of Lya, which is due to absorption of radiation from the galaxy by the intervening intergalactic medium. Here we report multicolour imaging of the most distant candidate protocluster, TN J1338-1942 at a redshift z ˜ 4.1. We find a large number of objects with the characteristic colours of galaxies at that redshift, and we show that this excess is concentrated around the targeted dominant radio galaxy. Our data therefore indicate that TN J1338-1942 is indeed the most distant cluster progenitor of a rich local cluster, and that galaxy clusters began forming when the Universe was only ten per cent of its present age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Re-ionization of the intergalactic medium occurred in the early Universe at redshift z???6-11, following the formation of the first generation of stars. Those young galaxies (where the bulk of stars formed) at a cosmic age of less than about 500 million years (z???10) remain largely unexplored because they are at or beyond the sensitivity limits of existing large telescopes. Understanding the properties of these galaxies is critical to identifying the source of the radiation that re-ionized the intergalactic medium. Gravitational lensing by galaxy clusters allows the detection of high-redshift galaxies fainter than what otherwise could be found in the deepest images of the sky. Here we report multiband observations of the cluster MACS J1149+2223 that have revealed (with high probability) a gravitationally magnified galaxy from the early Universe, at a redshift of z = 9.6?±?0.2 (that is, a cosmic age of 490?±?15 million years, or 3.6 per cent of the age of the Universe). We estimate that it formed less than 200 million years after the Big Bang (at the 95 per cent confidence level), implying a formation redshift of ?14. Given the small sky area that our observations cover, faint galaxies seem to be abundant at such a young cosmic age, suggesting that they may be the dominant source for the early re-ionization of the intergalactic medium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]