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The Indian bison, commonly called gaur (Bos gaurus gaurus), is native to South and Southeast Asia. In all its distribution ranges, the conservation status of the gaur lies between “vulnerable” and “endangered”. In this study, we genotyped 70 free-ranging wild gaurs from the Melghat Tiger Reserve (MTR), one of the first nine tiger reserves created in 1972 for tiger conservation in India. Fourteen microsatellite loci were genotyped in DNA extracted from the dung samples. An observed average heterozygosity of 0.726, evidence of gene flow was observed in the wild gaur population sampled from 11 locations in MTR. The effective population size (Ne) was 52.7. Approximate Bayesian computation analysis revealed population decline in the wild gaur population with the rise of mature Indus civilization ~ 2880 years ago. The population decline intensified during the reign of the medieval Monarch, extending further with the arrival of the British ~ 250 years ago. Our analyses detect population recovery in the free-ranging gaur population of MTR around 66 years ago, a time period coinciding with the independence of India followed by the implementation of the Indian wildlife protection act in the year 1972. The genetic data were discussed in the background of anthropology, archaeology and history of the Indian subcontinent.

Aim: To predict the distribution of suitable habitats for Malayan gaur (Bos gaurus) at a highly fragmented forest area in Peninsular Malaysia and to identify the potential connectivity between suitable habitat patches. Methodology: Maximum entropy (MaxEnt) approach was used to predict the distribution of suitable habitats of the Malayan gaur. Gaur presence-only data and six environmental variables were collated for the habitat suitability modeling, and area under curve (AUC) value was used to estimate the performance of the model. The resulting model was then used to derive a potential connectivity map through least-cost analysis using Corridor Designer toolbox in ArcGIS 10.4. Results: The AUC value of the habitat suitability model was 0.84. Distance from urban areas indicated the highest relative contribution to the model (26.9%), followed by distance from water body (24.2%) land use (18.0%) elevation (14.3%), slope (14.0%) and lithology (2.6%). Predicted suitable habitats for gaur were found mostly in lowland forest areas, especially in the vicinity of rivers within forest reserves. A total of five wildland blocks were derived from the habitat suitability model, and several potential corridor swaths were identified connecting the wildland blocks. Interpretation: The absence of gaur occurrence in suitable habitats suggest that fragmented habitats greatly affected gaur distribution and population. Road network and agricultural lands are the major barriers of gaur movement as they are very sensitive towards disturbances and conflict. Thus, this research proposes potential connectivity at a regional scale for Malayan gaur for use in future planning in conservation, management and development.

The presence of gaur (Bos gaurus) at the border of Khao Yai National Park (KYNP) in Thailand has resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of individuals’ crop feeding. This study examines the feeding adaptations of gaur at the edge of the protected area and assesses whether gaur response to increased nutrient availability in crop plants compared to natural forage. During the day, gaur mostly utilized forest areas in KYNP and entered the agricultural areas at night. Gaur ate 43 natural forage species. Natural forage species contain high levels of crude protein and lipid, but they are found in small quantities and scattered areas when compared to crop plants, especially Zea mays L., that are available in large quantity and are heavily foraged on by gaur. However, greater understanding of the electivity index and nutrition of forage species along the edge of the protected area can be used to reduce the gaur-human conflict by keeping gaur in KYNP. Reducing the large monoculture areas that is the food sources of gaur along the edge may reduce or prevent gaur leaving the park and can be applied to advance conservation actions.

The primary prey of tigers across much of South‐East Asia has been depleted, reducing the ability of already limited habitat to support tigers. To better understand the extent to which two of the largest prey species, gaur (Bos gaurus) and banteng (Bos javanicus), contribute to the tiger's diet, we estimated the average size of these species killed by tigers. This information is needed to more accurately calculate biomass of these species in the tiger's diet and to devise strategies to increase tiger carrying capacity where habitat is fragmented and limited in west‐central Thailand. We used temporally clumped locations of 24 satellite radio‐collared tigers to identify their kill sites and obtained mandibles from 82 gaur and 79 banteng. Kills were aged by teeth eruption sequence, sectioning the M1 molar and counting cementum annuli. Of all gaur killed, 45.2% were adults; of all banteng killed, 55.7% were adults. The average weight of banteng killed was 423.9 kg, which was similar to the 397.9 kg average weight for gaur. The mean weight of both prey species is 3.5–4.5 times greater than the predicted 1:1 preferred prey to predator ratio. In the absence of medium‐sized prey, killing these larger animals may be especially critical for female tigers provisioning nearly independent young when male offspring are already larger than the mother. This is the first study to present data on the average weights of gaur and banteng killed in South‐East Asia, and these results suggest that these are key prey species to target in tiger prey recovery efforts.

The Endangered Tiger Panthera tigris is the largest felid, distributed over 1.1 million km2 globally. Conservation of Tigers largely depends on the preservation of its natural prey base and habitats. Therefore, the availability of prey and its selection play a major role in the sustainable future of Tigers in the given landscape. The current study assesses the prey selection patterns by Tigers in tropical evergreen forest of the Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR), southern Western Ghats, India. Density of ungulates was assessed by distance sampling (line transect, N = 21) and diet composition of Tigers was evaluated by analysing their faecal samples (N = 66). The study estimated very low ungulate density (26.87 ± 7.41 individuals km-2) with highest density of Gaur Bos gaurus (9.04 individuals km-2) followed by Wild Boar Sus scrofa (8.79 ± 2.73 individuals km-2), whereas, primate density was quite high (45.89 ± 12.48 individuals km-2), with Nilgiri Langur Semnopithecus johnii having the highest density (38.05 ± 10.22 individuals km-2). About 74.62% of the biomass of Gaur constituted in the Tiger’s diet, consumed lesser than its availability, whereas Sambar constituted 16.73% of the Tiger diet consumed proportionally to its availability. Chital Axis axis, Muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, and Indian Chevrotain Moschiola indica were not represented in the Tiger’s diet. The current study is the first scientific information on prey selection of the Tiger in KMTR landscape, which will serve as a baseline for its conservation planning and management.

Summary: The evolution of the genera Bos and Bison, and the nature of gene flow between wild and domestic species, is poorly understood, with genomic data of wild species being limited. We generated two genomes from the likely extinct kouprey (Bos sauveli) and analyzed them alongside other Bos and Bison genomes. We found that B. sauveli possessed genomic signatures characteristic of an independent species closely related to Bos javanicus and Bos gaurus. We found evidence for extensive incomplete lineage sorting across the three species, consistent with a polytomic diversification of the major ancestry in the group, potentially followed by secondary gene flow. Finally, we detected significant gene flow from an unsampled Asian Bos-like source into East Asian zebu cattle, demonstrating both that the full genomic diversity and evolutionary history of the Bos complex has yet to be elucidated and that museum specimens and ancient DNA are valuable resources to do so.

Article Details: Received: 2020-03-24 | Accepted: 2020-08-24 | Available online: 2021-03-31 https://doi.org/10.15414/afz.2021.24.01.44-46 Wildlife diseases management and wildlife health monitoring in protected areas is a preclude to the management of mega fauna in the protected areas. A case study from Periyar Tiger Reserve (PTR), Kerala, India in free ranges animals’ revels that two important diseases like amphistomiasis in Sambar and anthrax in Elephant. They were controlled by effective management interventions by extensive survey to detect the diseased animals. The diagnosis was based on field observations and treatment was done not only for the affected animals but also localizing and treating the source of the pathogens. An elaborate health monitoring protocol was developed in PTRfor management of wildlife diseases. The present study gives a base line data in the wildlife health monitoring in South India . Keywords: Periyar Tiger Reserve, anthrax, amphistomiasis, sambar, wildlife diseases References ARYA, S.N. and BHATIA, D.K. (1992). Incidence of some livestock diseases in Tamil Nadu. Indian Journal of Animal Research, 26, 41–43. GORTAZER, C., DELGADO, I.D., BARASONA, J.A., VICENTE, J., FUENTE, J.D. and BOADELLA, M. (2014). The wild side of disease control at the wildlife-livestock-human interface: a review. Frontier of Veterinary Science, 1(27). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2014.00027 MAHANTI, P., PANDA, S.M. and PANDAV, B. (2016). Community based protection oriented eco-tourism: A tool for conservation of tigers in Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerela, India. International Research Journal of Environment Sciences, 5(7), 64–69. MARCHESE, C. (2015). Biodiversity hotspots: a shortcut for a more complicated concept. Global Ecology and Conservation, 3, 297–309. MONDAL, S.P. and YAMAGE, M. (2014). A retrospective study on the epidemiology of anthrax, food and mouth disease, haemorrhagic septicemia, peste des petits ruminants and rabies in Bangladesh, 2010–2012. PLos One, 9(8), e104435. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0104435 R ADHAKRISHNAN, K.V. and KURUP, M.B. (2010). Ichthyodiversity of Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerela, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa, 2(10), 1192–1198. RAWAT, M., SHARMA, K.N. and JATICAR, P.R. (1990). Presumed anthrax in a camel. Veterinary Record, 127, 411–411. SHARMA, M., JOSHI, V.B., BATTAMK, KATOCH, R.C., SHARMA, A.K. and NAGAL, K.B. (1996). Anthrax in buffaloes in Shivalik Valleys of Himachal Pradesh in India. Buffalo Journal, 12, 109–113. SHARMA, S.K., SINGH, G.R. and PATHAK, R.C. (1992). Epidemiological pattern of livestock diseases affecting pigs in Uttar Pradesh: anthrax and black quarters. Veterinary Research Journal, 6, 17–19. SINHA, S.K. (2012). Indian Bison Bos gaurus in the shiwalik hills-gangetic plains landscapes in India. Current Science, 103(5), 466–467. WOBESER. (1996). Forensic (Medico-legal) necropsy of wildlife. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 32(2), 240–249.

Despite conservation efforts, large mammals such as tigers (Panthera tigris) and their main prey, gaur (Bos gaurus), banteng (Bos javanicus), and sambar (Rusa unicolor), are highly threatened and declining across their entire range. The only large viable source population of tigers in mainland Southeast Asia occurs in Thailand's Western Forest Complex (WEFCOM), an approximately 19,000 km2 landscape of 17 contiguous protected areas.We used an occupancy modeling framework, which accounts for imperfect detection, to identify the factors that affect tiger distribution at the approximate scale of a female tiger's home range, 64 km2, and site use at a scale of 1‐km2. At the larger scale, we estimated the proportion of sites at WEFCOM that were occupied by tigers; at the finer scale, we identified the key variables that influence site‐use and developed a predictive distribution map. At both scales, we examined key anthropogenic and ecological factors that help explain tiger distribution and habitat use, including probabilities of gaur, banteng, and sambar occurrence from a companion study.Occupancy estimated at the 64‐km2 scale was primarily influenced by the combined presence of all three large prey species, and 37% or 5,858 km2 of the landscape was predicted to be occupied by tigers. In contrast, site use estimated at the scale of 1 km2 was most strongly influenced by the presence of sambar.By modeling occupancy while accounting for imperfect probability of detection, we established reliable benchmark data on the distribution of tigers in WEFCOM. This study also identified factors that limit tiger distributions; which managers can then target to expand tiger distribution and guide recovery elsewhere in Southeast Asia.

Charaspet K, Sukmasuang R, Khoewsree N, Pla-Ard M, Paansri P, Keawdee B, Chanachai Y, Bhumpakphan N. 2021. Spatial and temporal overlaps of top predators: Dhole, tiger and leopard, and their potential prey in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand. Biodiversitas 22: 580-592. The study of the spatial-temporal overlap of top predators and their prey is important to understand competition among predators and predator-prey relationships so that the viable populations of predators and other animals can be sustained. This research aimed to study the abundance of three top predators: Dhole (Cuon alpinus), tiger (Panthera tigris) and leopard (Panthera pardus), and their potential wild prey in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, and to investigate the spatial-temporal overlap between those three predators, and their potential wild prey. We tested two significant hypotheses: (i) tiger and leopard had the highest spatial-temporal overlap and the spatial overlap of dhole and leopard was higher in comparison to dhole and tiger due to a higher prey overlap; (ii) the three species of large carnivore avoided spatial-temporal overlap even if they were in the same area. The study was conducted using camera traps. In addition, the spatial-temporal overlap of large carnivores and their potential prey was studied to understand the important species of prey of these large carnivores. The results showed that the spatial overlap of tiger and leopard was the highest. Dhole had significant spatial overlap with leopard, which was higher in comparison to dhole and tiger. A significant temporal overlap of dhole and leopard was not found. Also, a significant temporal overlap of tiger and leopard was not found. The results were based on hypotheses that conformed to the niche overlap index of the potential prey and the temporal overlap coefficient. There were ten important species of potential prey of large carnivores: Sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), red muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak), gaur (Bos gaurus), banteng (Bos javanicus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), Malayan porcupine (Hystrix brachyura), large Indian civet (Viverra zibetha), Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus), pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina) and red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus). The important recommendation is the protection of the sanctuary from wildfires which spread from the outside in, especially in dry evergreen forest. Food resources of herbivores in the area must be managed, as well as the prevention of epidemics from livestock to wild animals.

Significance We undertook an ancient genomic DNA investigation of large animal remains dated ∼5,200 y B.P. from the Tibetan Plateau. We provide compelling evidence that the present-day low-latitude tropical inhabitants Bos gaurus and Dicerorhinus sumatrensis once roamed as far north as the margin of the northeastern Tibetan Plateau (NETP) during the late Neolithic, pushing the historical gaur distribution from ∼29°N to ∼34°N. Further multidisciplinary exploration indicates that a high summer temperature in the late Neolithic might have facilitated the northward expansion of these tropical animals to the NETP, which enriched the biodiversity of wildlife and contributed to the exploration of the Tibetan Plateau as one of the last habitats for hunting game in East Asia., Local wild bovids have been determined to be important prey on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau (NETP), where hunting game was a major subsistence strategy until the late Neolithic, when farming lifestyles dominated in the neighboring Loess Plateau. However, the species affiliation and population ecology of these prehistoric wild bovids in the prehistoric NETP remain unknown. Ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis is highly informative in decoding this puzzle. Here, we applied aDNA analysis to fragmented bovid and rhinoceros specimens dating ∼5,200 y B.P. from the Neolithic site of Shannashuzha located in the marginal area of the NETP. Utilizing both whole genomes and mitochondrial DNA, our results demonstrate that the range of the present-day tropical gaur (Bos gaurus) extended as far north as the margins of the NETP during the late Neolithic from ∼29°N to ∼34°N. Furthermore, comparative analysis with zooarchaeological and paleoclimatic evidence indicated that a high summer temperature in the late Neolithic might have facilitated the northward expansion of tropical animals (at least gaur and Sumatran-like rhinoceros) to the NETP. This enriched the diversity of wildlife, thus providing abundant hunting resources for humans and facilitating the exploration of the Tibetan Plateau as one of the last habitats for hunting game in East Asia.

The gaur is the largest extant cattle species and distributed across South and Southeast Asia. Around 85% of its current global population resides in India, however there has been a gradual decrease in the gaur population over the last two decades due to various anthropogenic activities. Mitochondrial genome is considered as an important tool for species identification and monitoring the populations of conservation concern and therefore it becomes an obligation to sequence the mitochondrial genome of Indian gaur. We report here for the first time 16,345 bp mitochondrial genome of four Indian gaur sequenced using two different approaches. Mitochondrial genome consisted of 13 protein-coding genes, 2 rRNA genes, 22 tRNA genes, and a control region. Among the 37 genes, 28 were positioned on the H-strand and 9 were positioned on the L-strand. The overall base composition appeared to be 33.5% A, 27.2% T, 25.9% C and 13.4% G, which yielded a higher AT content. The phylogenetic analysis using complete mitochondrial genome sequences unambiguously suggested that gaur is the maternal ancestor of domestic mithun. Moreover, it also clearly distinguished the three sub species of B. gaurus i.e. B. gaurus gaurus, B. gaurus readei and B. gaurus hubbacki. Among the three sub species, B. gaurus gaurus was genetically closer to B. gaurus readei as compared to B. gaurus hubbacki. The findings of our study provide an insight into the genetic structure and evolutionary history of Indian gaur.

Hybridization between wild and domestic bovine occurs widely due to the overlapping of the natural habitat of the wild and human farm animals. Due to the loss of habitat, the number of wild gaur (Bos gaurus) in Vietnam was in serious decline. Since 2009, a male wild gaur (Bos gaurus) has appeared and incorporated with female domestic cows (Bos taurus) in buffer zone Phuoc Binh National Park, on the border with Lam Dong and Ninh Thuan provinces. Then, several calves were born that carried some traits of wild gaur including physical characteristics and behaviors. These calves were supposed to be offspring between wild gaur and domestic cows. In previous study, the karyotypes of putative calves were identified with 2n = 58 and non-homologous chromosome 28 and 29 in these hybrids. In this study, we characterized the putative hybrids between track-lacking Bos gaurus and Bos taurus for breeding and preservation using Cytochrome b analysis, microsatellites and a novel marker growth hormone factor 1 (POU1F1). Cytochrome b analysis indicated the maternal lineage of the putative hybrids, with 100% nucleotide sequence identity. Microsatellite BM861 and sequence of ZFY gene region reveal Bos taurus chromosome Y origin was among the male putative hybrids. Importantly, the analysis of POU1F1 gene sequence on 1 chromosome showed efficacy in determining both Bos gaurus and Bos taurus lineage in the putative hybrids. The karyotyping results were confirmed by molecular analysis and our results provide a feasible way for detecting the putative hybrids between wild and domestic cattle in case of lacking the wild trace.

Md-Zain BM, Abdul-Aziz A, Aifat NR, Mohd-Yusof NS, Norsyamimi R, Rovie-Ryan JJ, Karuppannan KV, Zulkifli NA, Yaakop S. 2018. Sequence variation of captive Malayan Gaur (Bos gaurus hubbacki) based on mitochondrial D-loop region DNA sequences. Biodiversitas 19: 1601-1606. Malayan gaur (Bos gaurus hubbacki) can only be found in Peninsular Malaysia and southern Thailand. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has listed Malayan gaur in the Red List as vulnerable. The main objective of this study was to investigate sequence variation in the mitochondrial D-loop region of B. g. hubbacki from two captive centers. We collected 30 DNA samples of Malayan gaur from Jenderak Selatan Wildlife Conservation Center in Pahang and the Sungkai Wildlife Reserve in Perak. Polymerase chain reactions were performed to amplify all the samples. DNA sequences were analyzed using Neighbor-Joining (NJ) and Maximum Parsimony (MP) methods. Based on the 652 base pairs obtained, we found only seven variable characters with a value of 1% and a genetic distance between the two captive centers of 0.001. Haplotype analyses using DnaSP software detected only four haplotypes between these two captive centers. Both NJ and MP trees portrayed all Malayan gaur individuals in Jenderak Selatan and Sungkai captive centers as belonging to the same clade. Genetic variation of Malayan gaur in these centers is considered low due to individuals possibly sharing the same common parent. This sequence variation information is of paramount importance for the proper breeding and conservation management program of Malayan gaur in the future.

Bos frontalis Lambert, 1804 and Bos gaurus Hamilton-Smith, 1827 are the domestic and wild forms, respectively, of the bovid commonly called the gaur. It is the world’s largest cattle species. Bos gaurus is endemic to south and southeastern Asia, and today, the majority of its population occurs in India. It is sexually dimorphic, with adult males having a distinctive dorsal ridge and often a dewlap. Although B. gaurus consumes numerous browse species, it is primarily a grazer. Except for older males, all other B. gaurus are nearly always found in herds. It is classified as a Vulnerable species, and in 2011–2012, the first reintroductions of B. gaurus occurred in central India.

We investigated the factors affecting group sizes and population composition of chital (Axis axis), sambar (Rusa unicolor), hog deer (Axis porcinus), northern red muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis), wild boar (Sus scrofa) and gaur (Bos gaurus) in the Chitwan National Park in southern Nepal. The study revealed that mean group sizes were the largest for chital (winter: 13.76 and summer: 11.01), followed by wild boar (winter: 6.89 and summer: 8.51), hog deer (winter: 5.52 and summer: 6.66), gaur (winter: 4.36 and summer: 5.81), sambar (winter: 1.86 and summer: 2.45) and muntjac (winter: 1.44 and summer: 1.46). The age and sex ratio of ungulates were biased towards females in all species. This study found the highest proportion of young individuals in wild boar and the lowest in gaur. Habitat structure, presence of predators and human disturbances strongly affected group size of ungulates in this area. Larger groups of ungulates were found in less disturbed open areas with high predatory pressure, while smaller groups and solitary individuals were found in highly disturbed forest areas. We recommend that management of human disturbances inside the park and regular monitoring of the changes in the demography of ungulate populations will improve long-term conservation strategies in this park. Journal of Institute of Science and TechnologyVolume 22, Issue 2, January 2018, Page: 156-167

Large terrestrial wild herbivores are threatened globally, but scarce information exists on their populations outside of protected areas in South and Southeast Asia. India supports 39 species of wild herbivores, nearly two-thirds of which are threatened. While the protected area network still forms the backbone of large mammal conservation, it occupies less than 5% of India. Yet, remnant habitats outside of parks have received sparse attention to conserve threatened wild herbivores. Our study examined the effects of livestock occurrence, human proximity (distance to nearest village), and habitat factors (percentage habitat available and mean slope) on populations of large wild ungulates in a tropical forest outside of protected areas in the Western Ghats of India. We used a sign-based abundance-occupancy modelling approach to assess the effects of these variables on animal group density ( λ ˆ ) and animal group-specific detection probability (r) of three large wild ungulates (gaur Bos gaurus, sambar Rusa unicolor, and wild pig Sus scrofa). Our results reveal that in human-dominated tropical forests, gaur group density increases with larger available habitat and lower occurrence of livestock, while sambar group density increases with higher mean slope and lower occurrence of livestock. Contrary to expectation, sambar group density was higher in smaller available habitat. No variable could reliably explain wild pig group density, but the species is a known generalist. Our results have important implications for conservation of threatened large herbivores and management of remnant tropical forest habitats outside protected areas, especially Reserved Forests in the Indian context. Remnant habitats can support significant populations of large herbivores and need to be protected in developing South and Southeast Asian countries. Gradual improvement in livestock management practices will benefit large herbivore populations in priority regions outside of protected parks in India.

We studied the diet of the Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, by identifying 109 prey items from 85 tiger scats. Tigers in this region fed upon eight different mammal species. Chital (Axis axis) was the major prey with a frequency of 45% of the Tigers’ diet. The occurrence of other prey species included sambar (Cervus unicolor, 23%), wild pig (Sus scrofa, 15%), hog deer (Axis porcinus, 9%), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak, 4%), and gaur (Bos gaurus, 2%). Tigers also hunted livestock, but this prey comprised a small component of the relative biomass (buffalo 5% and cow 2%). Our study suggests that the tiger depends mostly upon wild prey for its subsistence in the Chitwan National Park, but will also sporadically hunt livestock.

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A total of 35 ticks were collected from a dead Bison at Gudalur, The Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, India. The ticks were morphologically identified as Amblyomma integrum and Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides....

Connectivity for large mammals across human-altered landscapes results from movement by individuals that can be described via nested spatial scales as linkages (or zones or areas) with compatible land use types, constrictions that repeatedly funnel movement (as corridors) or impede it (as barriers), and the specific paths (or routes) across completely anthropogenic features (such as highways). Mitigation to facilitate animal movement through such landscapes requires similar attention to spatial scale, particularly when they involve complex topography, diverse types of human land use, and transportation infrastructure. We modeled connectivity for Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ) and gaur ( Bos gaurus ) in the Shencottah Gap, a multiple-use region separating two tiger reserves in the Western Ghats, India. Using 840 km of surveys for animal signs within a region of 621 km 2 , we modeled landscape linkages via resource selection functions integrated across two spatial resolutions, and then potential dispersal corridors within these linkages using circuit theoretical models. Within these corridors, we further identified potential small-scale movement paths across a busy transportation route via least-cost paths and evaluated their viability. Both elephants and gaur avoided human-dominated habitat, resulting in broken connectivity across the Shencottah Gap. Predicted corridor locations were sensitive to analysis resolution, and corridors derived from scale-integrated habitat models correlated best with habitat quality. Less than 1% of elephant and gaur detections occurred in habitat that was poorer in quality than the lowest-quality component of the movement path across the transportation route, suggesting that connectivity will require habitat improvement. Only 28% of dispersal corridor area and 5% of movement path length overlapped with the upper 50% quantile of the landscape linkage; thus, jointly modeling these three components enabled a more nuanced evaluation of connectivity than any of them in isolation.

Aim: The aim of this research was to examine patterns of human-wildlife conflict and assess community perception towards compensation program implemented to ameliorate human-wildlife co-existence. Location : North and South Forest Divisions, Nilambur, South India. Material and Methods: Data were collected from the official archives of applications made by victims or their families at Divisional Forest Office, Nilambur North and South Forest Division, for the period 2010–2013. The data included (a) types of conflict, (b) wildlife species involved in the conflict, (c) dates of application made by applicants, (d) dates of final decision made by concerned authority and (d) relief amount sanctioned. People’s perceptions towards compensation program were gathered using a questionnaire survey (n=179). Key findings : Crop damage was the most common type of conflict, followed by property damage, injury and death by wildlife attack. Crop damage was contributed mainly by elephant ( Elephas maximus ) (59%) and wild boar ( Sus scrofa ) (32%). The other wildlife species involved in conflict were bonnet macaque ( Macaca radiata ) (3.8%), leopard ( Panthera pardus ) (3.3%), Malabar giant squirrel ( Ratufa indica ) (0.47%), porcupine ( Hystrix indica ) (0.29%), Guar ( Bos gaurus ) (0.95%) and Sambar deer ( Cervus unicolor )(0.29 %). On average, people took 13 days to claim compensation, which received decisions in 90 days. The majority of respondents (67%) were not satisfied with the compensation schemes. The main causes of such dissatisfaction were (a) allocation of insufficient money for the compensation (46.6%), (b) prolonged and difficult administrative procedures to make claims (20%), (c) people’s convictions that compensation scheme does not eradicate the conflict (20%) and (d) disbelief on the officials involved in compensation program (6.6%). Conservation implications: Our results suggest that compensation program has not gained acceptance among local community as an effective strategy to mitigate human-wildlife conflict. Although it may reduce hostile attitude towards wildlife, alternative approaches are urgently needed that avoid conflicts.

Bos gaurus gaurus commonly called as gaur is a wild bovid species inhabiting South and Southeast Asia and attained vulnerable status in India. In this study, we typed 62 extant free-ranging wild gaur individuals for mitochondrial partial displacement loop (D-loop) and cytochrome b gene (Cyt b) from the Melghat Tiger Reserve (MTR). Two historical DNA samples originating from museums and two Tectona grandis bark fibers samples browsed by wild gaur were also used as a source of environmental DNA. Both D-loop and Cyt b loci show the occurrence of a single haplotype in the contemporary wild gaur population. While D-loop fragment sequencing of two historical museum samples reveals two unique haplotypes, virtually absent in the present wild gaur population of MTR. Amplifications of the similar haplotypes in gaur DNA samples obtained through chewed T. grandis bark fibers have proved the efficacy of eDNA. Bayesian Skyline Plot (BSP) analysis using extant and historical D-loop sequences illustrate population decline starting from upper Mesolithic. Also, the BSP graph indicates accelerated effective population size decline (Ne), a time period coinciding with the different phases of the ∼5000 years old Indus civilization. The plot shows an overall declining trend in the wild gaur population, a probable outcome of ever-shrinking habitat in the central Indian landscape caused by prehistoric, medieval and colonial hunting practices.

Bovidae, the largest family in Pecora infraorder, are characterized by a striking variability in diploid number of chromosomes between species and among individuals within a species. The bovid X chromosome is also remarkably variable, with several morphological types in the family. Here we built a detailed chromosome map of musk ox (Ovibos moschatus), a relic species originating from Pleistocene megafauna, with dromedary and human probes using chromosome painting. We trace chromosomal rearrangements during Bovidae evolution by comparing species already studied by chromosome painting. The musk ox karyotype differs from the ancestral pecoran karyotype by six fusions, one fission, and three inversions. We discuss changes in pecoran ancestral karyotype in the light of new painting data. Variations in the X chromosome structure of four bovid species nilgai bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus), saola (Pseudoryx nghetinhensis), gaur (Bos gaurus), and Kirk&rsquo, s Dikdik (Madoqua kirkii) were further analyzed using 26 cattle BAC-clones. We found the duplication on the X in saola. We show main rearrangements leading to the formation of four types of bovid X: Bovinae type with derived cattle subtype formed by centromere reposition and Antilopinae type with Caprini subtype formed by inversion in XSB3.

Menkham K, Sukmasuang R, Pla-Ard M, Charaspet K, Panganta T, Trisurat Y, Bhumpakphan N. 2019. Population and habitat use of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and five ungulate species in Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, Chachoengsao Province, Thailand. Biodiversitas 20: 2213-2221. This study on the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population, habitat use and the diel activity patterns of elephants and five species of large even-toed ungulates was conducted between March 2017 and March 2018 in Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, Chachoengsao Province using intensive camera trapping. Fifty-eight camera traps were deployed, adding up to a total of 4,463 trap nights and revealing 1,760 independent encounters. Six species of mammals were recorded, including the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and five species of large even-toed ungulates; the gaur (Bos gaurus), the banteng (Bos javanicus), the sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), the wild boar (Sus scrofa), and the muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak). The abundance analysis reflected that the probability occupancy of the elephant was 0.92 (SE = 0.04); in dry seasons 0.97 (SE = 0.04) and in wet seasons 0.90 (SE = 0.83). The population of elephants within the study site of 87.95 km2 was within 79.51-334.15 individuals. The elephant age classes were identified as adult, sub-adult, juvenile, and calf with percentages of 77.85%, 5.71%, 9.28%, and 7.14%, respectively. The adult male to adult female sex-ratio was 1: 1.39 and the adult female per calf ratio was 1: 0.12. The percentage of the calf to adult female ratio was 9.17%. Maximum Entropy analysis revealed that saltlicks and artificial water sources were the environmental factors that had the most influence on the probability of occurrence of the elephant (all year). We found that the diel activity pattern of the elephants was strongly nocturnal (85% recorded between 18.00-05.59 hours). Temporal overlapping was seen between elephants and gaurs, bantengs and sambar deer in order. Suggestions for area management include improvement of water sources, salt licks, grassland management, and providing education, publicization, and strict control to decrease human activities within the protected area. There also should be continuous studies to monitor the population and the ecology of these species.

This article contains data of the sequence variation in the mitochondrial DNA D-loop region of the Malayan gaur (Bos gaurus hubbacki), locally known as the seladang, from two captive centers. Thirty fecal samples of Malayan gaur were collected from Jenderak Selatan Wildlife Conservation Center (Pahang) and the Sungkai Wildlife Reserve (Perak) for DNA extraction and amplification with polymerase chain reactions. DNA sequences were then analyzed using neighbor joining (NJ) and maximum parsimony (MP) methods. Based on the 652 base pairs obtained, we found seven variable characters with a value of 1%. The genetic distance between the two captive centers was 0.001. Haplotype analyses detected only four haplotypes between these two captive centers. Both NJ and MP trees demonstrate that all individuals in the Jenderak and Sungkai captive centers are in the same clade. Genetic variation of the Malayan gaur in these centers is considered low, possibly because individuals share the same common parent. This sequence variation data are of paramount importance for designing a proper breeding and management program of the Malayan gaur in the future. Keywords: Malayan gaur, Bos gaurus hubbacki, Seladang, Genetic variation

Tiger populations are declining globally, and depletion of major ungulate prey is an important contributing factor. To better understand factors affecting prey distribution in Thailand’s Western Forest Complex (WEFCOM), we conducted sign surveys for gaur (Bos gaurus), banteng (Bos javanicus), and sambar (Rusa unicolor) along 3517 1-km transects and used occupancy models to identify important covariates associated with habitat use by each species. Habitat use by both gaur and sambar was lowest in areas closest to human settlements, although sambar preferred lower slopes near streams whereas gaur preferred steeper slopes at higher elevations. Banteng were found in only one of 17 protected areas (Huai Kha Khaeng [HKK] Wildlife Sanctuary), where they used low elevations and low slopes. We used these modeled relationships to predict occurrence of gaur, sambar, and banteng across each square km of the 19,000 km2 WEFCOM landscape, using > 60 % occupancy probability to define suitable habitat use for each species. Based on this criterion, gaur and sambar occupied 28 and 50 % of suitable habitat in WEFCOM, and banteng occupied 57 % of suitable habitat in HKK. We used our models to assess the effectiveness of two hypothetical conservation initiatives. First, we modeled the impact of decreasing human activities around nine villages in the core of WEFCOM, which increased predicted suitable habitat in WEFCOM to 68 and 75 % for guar and sambar. We also modeled the extent of potential banteng habitat that still remains in the other 16 protected areas. This could result in a 4-fold increase in banteng suitable habitat in WEFCOM. This is the first study to use occupancy surveys to determine where large prey species can be restored to support management to increase the distribution of tigers, and potentially fill a half-full tiger landscape.

Intensifying human-wildlife interaction requires effective human-wildlife management strategies. In India, forests designated as Protected Areas (PAs) have better wildlife protection measures unlike Reserved Forests (outside PAs) which are undervalued, although both support similar kinds of wildlife. Wildlife conservation planning and policy-level decision making become incomplete without addressing wildlife management issues outside PA along with PAs as the former act as a buffer/corridor for PAs. We conducted a semi-structured questionnaire survey with the Forest Range Officers (FROs) belonging to nine PAs and seven outside PAs across the Western and Eastern Ghats part of Tamil Nadu State, southern India. We collected information on the human-wildlife interactions, mitigation measures carried out, poaching incidents, and availability of manpower and resources. Over 50% of the FROs reported an increase in Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) incidents for the past five years. Major species involved in conflict in PAs and outside PAs were elephant (Elephas maximus), wild pig (Sus scrofa), leopard (Panthera pardus), bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata), followed by sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), sambar (Rusa unicolor) (more in PAs), gaur (Bos gaurus) (more in outside PAs), dhole (Cuon alpinus), chital (Axis axis), and tiger (Panthera tigris). There were no variations in the mitigation measures employed in PAs and outside PAs. The number of schemes (N = 8–10) available for wildlife management was similar, but to a certain extent, the fund availability was more insufficient outside PAs than in PAs. Tiger (only in PAs), leopard, elephant, and pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) were amongst the fourteen wildlife species poached in the PAs and outside PAs, although wild pig, sambar, black-naped hare (Lepus nigricollis), and chital dominated the list. Prevalent methods for poaching were snares, trained dogs, guns (dominant in PAs), followed by hand-made bombs, poisoning, cage traps, electric traps (only outside PAs), and food baits. Over 50% of the FROs reported decreases in poaching incidences with improved wildlife management strategies for the past five years. PAs had a higher number of anti-poaching camps with anti-poaching watchers than outside PAs. Our study highlighted the disparity in resource allocation among PAs and outside PAs though the intensity of conservation issues was similar. Inadequate availability of resources affected the effective management of conflict species which leads to increase risk of HWC. This is the first study to highlight the success/failure of human-wildlife management depending on reducing lacunas in management effectiveness of PAs and outside PAs for managing at a larger landscape level beyond PAs.

Wildlife poisoning is an important conservation threat for endangered species in India. There are no publications in the scientific literature that identify the specific poisons or chemicals involved in wildlife poisoning cases from the state of Kerala. In this report, all cases of wildlife mortality recorded between 2011 and 2013 at the office of the Assistant Forest Veterinary Officer, Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala were reviewed and cases where poisoning was considered as a differential diagnosis were identified. Specific poisons or chemicals were identified in three cases, while in a fourth, poisoning was determined to have occurred based on physical traces of the poison in gut contents. The poisons identified include carbofuran (a carbamate pesticide) in a bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata), warfarin (a rodenticide) in a mortality event involving four wild boars (Sus scrofa), endosulfan (an organochlorine pesticide) toxicity in a gaur (Bos gaurus) and imidacloprid (a neonicotinoid pesticide) toxicity in a wild adult Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). This communication thus reports for the first time on the specific chemical compounds identified in wildlife poisoning cases from Kerala state and argues for greater regulation of the sale and use of such toxic compounds in India.

Bos gaurus Hamilton-Smith, 1827 Wild Gaur B [os]. Bubalus guavera Kerr, 1792:339. Type locality ��� Ceylon.��� Bos frontalis Lambert, 1804:57. Type locality ��� India;��� first use of the current name combination of the binomial for the domestic form (Gentry et al. 2004; International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature 2003). Bos gavaeus Colebrooke, 1808:512, 516. Type locality ���mountains that form the eastern boundary of the provinces of Aracan [Burma], Chittagong (Chitgozou) [Bangladesh], Tipara [India], and Syilhet [Bangladesh].��� Bos sylhetanus Cuvier, 1824:2. Type locality ���vivans �� la m��nagerie de Barracpour; au pied des montagnes du Sylhet.��� Bos gaurus Hamilton-Smith, 1827a:399. No type locality given; first use of the current name combination of binomial for the wild form (Gentry et al. 2004; International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature 2003). B [os. (Bison)] gaurus: Hamilton-Smith, 1827b:373. Name combination. B [os. (Bison)] gavaeus: Hamilton-Smith, 1827b:375. Name combination. Bos gour Hardwicke, 1828:231. Type locality ���Mountainous District of Ramgurh [= Ramgarh, Jharkhand, India], and Table-land of Sirgoojas [= Surguja, Chhattisgarh, India].��� Bos gayaeus Hardwicke, 1828:232. Incorrect subsequent spelling of Bos gavaeus Colebrooke, 1808. Bison gaurus: Jardine, 1836a:251. Name combination. Bison sylhetanus: Jardine, 1836b:257. Name combination. [Bos (Bibos)] subhemachalus Hodgson, 1837:499. Type locality ���saul [= sal] forest of Nipal [= Nepal].��� [Bos (Bibos)] cavifrons Hodgson, 1837:747 Replacement name for Bibos subhemachalus Hodgson, 1837. Bos gareus Gray, 1843:151. Incorrect subsequent spelling of Bos gaurus Hamilton-Smith, 1827. Bos gaur Sundevall, 1844:201. Incorrect subsequent spelling of Bos gaurus Hamilton-Smith, 1827. Bibos frontatus Gray 1846:230. Incorrect subsequent spelling of Bos frontalis Lambert, 1804. [Gaveus] frontalis: Hodgson, 1847:706. Name combination and incorrect subsequent spelling of Bos frontalis Lambert, 1804. [Gaveus] gayoeus: Hodgson, 1847:706. Name combination. [Gaveus] sylhetanus: Hodgson, 1847:706. Name combination. Bibos concavifrons Roulin 1849:619. Incorrect subsequent spelling of Bibos cavifrons Hodsgon, 1837. Gavaeus frontalis: Horsfield, 1851:179. Name combination. Bibos asseel Horsfield, 1851:181. Type locality ���South-eastern Frontier of Bengal and Silhet.��� Bos frontalis domesticus Fitzinger, 1860:387. Name combination. Gavaeus gaurus: Blyth, 1860:284. Name combination. Bos (Bibos) frontalis: Lydekker, 1898:32. Name combination. Gauribos brachyrhinus Heude, 1901:3, 4. Type locality ��� Pursat, station situ��e sur un affluent des grand lacs du Cambodge [= on one of the tributaries of the grand lakes of Cambodia],��� based on lectotype selection by Braun et al. (2001:652). Gauribos laosiensis Heude, 1901:3. Type locality ���la chaine qui s��pare le Laos du Tonkin, vers la province de Camoun [= Annamite Mountain, separating Laos and Cambodia],��� based on lectotype selection by Braun et al. (2001:652). Gauribos sylvanus Heude, 1901:4. Type locality ���for��ts des Mois [= Moi forests],��� Vietnam, based on holotype selection by Braun et al. (2001:652). Gauribos mekongensis Heude, 1901:5. Type locality ��� Krati��,��� Cambodia, based on lectotype selection by Braun et al. (2001:652). Uribos platyceros Heude, 1901:5. Type locality ���Tourane de bassins des rivi��res de Hu��,��� Vietnam, based on lectotype selection by Braun et al. (2001:652). Bubalibos annamiticus Heude, 1901:3, 6. Type locality ���Hu�� [Province],��� Vietnam, based on lectotype selection by Braun et al. (2001:652). Bos? leptoceros Heude, 1901:7. Type locality ���Kampot, au bord du golfe de Siam [= Cambodia on shores of the Gulf of Siam].��� Bibos discolor Heude, 1901:3, 8. No type locality given. Bibos sondaicus Heude, 1901:3, 8. No type locality given. Bibos longicornis Heude, 1901:9. No type locality given. Bibos? fuscicornis Heude, 1901:9. Type locality ���D��a sur la rivi��re de Vinh.��� Bos gaurus readi Lydekker, 1903:266. Type locality ��� Burma.��� Bos gaurus frontalis: Lydekker, 1912:177 Name combination. CONTEXT AND CONTENT. Order Artiodactyla, suborder Ruminantia, infraorder Pecora, family Bovidae, subfamily Bovinae, tribe Bovini. Lydekker (1907) classified 3 subspecies of Bos gaurus: B. gaurus gaurus (Bangladesh, India, and Nepal), B. gaurus readei (Burma and China), and B. gaurus hubbacki (Malaysia). Lydekker classified the 3 subspecies using only 5��� 6 specimens, and all of the morphological differences that he relied on have since been proved to be incorrect. More recently, based on skull and horn measurements, 2 subspecies were proposed (Groves 2003; Groves and Grubb 2011): B. gaurus gaurus in India and Nepal (and possibly Bangladesh) and B. gaurus laosiensis in Myanmar (Burma), Lao PDR, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and West Malaysia (and presumably southern China). This new classification was also based on a small sample size of skulls. Thus far, no genetic analyses have yet conclusively corroborated the existence of subspecies. Therefore, the evidence to split B. gaurus into subspecies remains inconclusive. NOMENCLATURAL NOTES. Although Wilson and Reeder (2005) list Bos diardii Temminck, 1838, and Bos frontatus Temminck, 1938, as synonyms of Bos gaurus Hamilton-Smith, 1827a, and Bos frontalis Temminck, 1838 as synonyms of Bos frantalis Lambert, 1804 ���while using Bos frontalis to refer to both the wild and domestic forms���they clarify that references for both these synonyms were ���nomen nudum.��� Kerr (1792) included Bos bubalus guavera in his list of Mammalia of the Animal Kingdom based on the description by Knox (1681:21) of a wild buffalo with white legs called gauvera in Ceylon. Pennant (1792:31), also referring to Knox (1681), described a subspecies of buffalo from Ceylon with ���legs that are white one-half way from the hoofs��� as gauvera in his ���History of quadrupeds.��� Colebrooke (1808) provided the first detailed description and measurements of wild and domestic form and called the animal gayal, which is one of the common names for the domestic form. Hardwicke (1827) coined his Bos gour synonym based on the detailed description by Traill (1824), who described an animal he thought was known as gour in India. F. Cuvier (1824) provided the first colored illustrations of male and female B. gaurus that were based on the description of wild B. gaurus by M. Alfred Duvaucel. Common names of the wild form in other languages include tadok (Adi); peeoug (Burmese); kaati, kaadu kona, kaadu yemme (Kannada); kulga, gameya (Kannada in Uttara Kannada district); duddu (Kannada in Northern Udupi district); meuay (Lao); seladang (Malay); Da-E-Ni, Xffi+ (Mandarin); raangawa (Marathi); kattu pothu (Malayalam); gauri gai (Nepali); kaatu maadu (Tamil); B�� T��t (Vietnamese); adavi dunna (Telugu); krating ��������������� (Thai); and moo (Gonds). DIAGNOSIS Species in the subfamily Bovinae are large and have stout bodies, hollow horns, relatively short legs, long tails with a terminal tuft of hair, broad muzzles, and no facial, pedal, or inguinal glands (Blanford 1888; Lydekker 1913). Five genera in Bovinae (Grubb 2005) are currently considered in the tribe Bovini: Bison, Bos, Bubalus, Pseudoryx, and Syncerus. Species in the Bovini tribe are distinguishable by their smooth horns that are strongly keeled and spirally twisted, although not being regularly ridged (Figs. 1���3; Grubb 2005; Groves and Grubb 2011). Extant species of Bovini are further distinguished from other Bovinae species by their low, wide skulls, internal sinuses in the frontals extending into the horn cores, a short braincase and widened occiput, molars with larger basal pillars and complicated central cavities, and upper molars that are strongly hypsodont (Lydekker 1913; Gentry 1992; Grubb 2005; Groves and Grubb 2011). Except for the yak (Bos mutus), which is hairy and has 14 dorsal and 5 lumbar vertebrae (Leslie and Schaller 2009), Bos gauru s shares its traits of not being hairy and having 13 dorsal and 6 lumbar vertebrae with the other Bos and Bubalus wild cattle species of Asia. Dewlaps that hang under the neck and chin and a dorsal ridge are prominent features that distinguish Bos males from Bubalus males. Dewlaps and the dorsal ridge are prominent distinguishing features of adult male B. gaurus (Fig. 1), and these traits are shared with the males of other Southeast Asian Bos species, such as the banteng (B. javanicus) and the now presumed extinct kouprey (B. sauveli). Both sexes in all 3 species have white lower legs, and females of both species are primarily brown and males are primarily black. Bos javanicus, however, has a white patch on its rump that B. gaurus does not, and reported weights suggest that B. javanicus is smaller in size than B. gaurus. Adult male B. gaurus are further distinguishable from adult male B. javanicus by their very muscular appearance, and the brown pelage of female B. javanicus is a shade lighter than the brown pelage of female B. gaurus. GENERAL CHARACTERS Bos gaurus is a sexually dimorphic species (Figs. 1 and 2), and differences between the sexes begin to be noticeable after the age of 2 years (Ahrestani and Prins 2011). Young calves (0���2 months) have light orange-brown body coats and do not have white stockings. The white stockings (all 4 legs, starting just above the knee in both sexes, are white) develop from the age of 3 months (Fig. 1). Males grow rapidly to attain large sizes (> 900 kg) and develop a black pelage with age; adult males, generally> 5 years are referred to as black bulls. Females are smaller in size (B. gaurus, the older is the individual (Fig. 4). Horns of males are thicker and extend outwards first before curving inward, which results in the horns on males being further apart from each other (Figs. 3 and 4). Female horns, in contrast, extend outward a lot less, and are thus closer to one another, and have a spiral curvature that makes the horns point at each other; the inward curvature of female horns begins by the age of 2 years (Figs. 3 and 4). Horns on both sexes appear to grow throughout the lifetime of an individual, and it is not uncommon to see old females with horns that are nearly touching. A muscular elevated dorsal ridge and dewlaps that hang under the neck and chin easily distinguish adult males from females. Frontals and parietals of the skull are in a single plane and are similar to other Bos species (Fig. 5). A more detailed description of the differences in morphological characteristics between the sexes across age classes is presented in Ahrestani and Prins (2011). Reported weights of adult males shot in the wild were as follows: 590, 782, 864, 864, 931, and 941 kg (Dunbar-Brander 1923; Meinertzhagen 1939; Morris 1947). Reported weights of adult females shot in hunts were as follows: 440 kg (excluding blood���Schaller 1967) and 703 kg (Meinertzhagen 1939). The skull of a male B. gaurus has been recorded to weigh about 21 kg (Robison 1941). Based on measurements of 9 captive males and 14 captive females, Ahrestani and Prins (2011) reported a maximum shoulder height of 175 cm for males and 148 cm for females. Other records of shoulder height of males include those killed in hunts: 145 cm (Cameron 1929), 176 cm (Inverarity 1889), 178 cm (Forsyth 1889), and 197 cm (Pillay 1952). Length from nose to root of the tail of a male���s body was reported to be 249 cm (Cameron 1929) and 284 cm (Dunbar- Brander 1923). Length of tail was 86 cm (Dunbar-Brander 1923) and 89 cm (Cameron 1929). The range of length of a male���s horn is 61���96 cm (Forsyth 1889; Inverarity 1889; Baker 1903; Cameron 1929; Robison 1941; Hundley 1952; Pillay 1952; Schaller 1967), and the spread (between the widest outside points) is 89���134 cm (Inverarity 1889; Baker 1903; Cameron 1929; Robison 1941; Hundley 1952; Pillay 1952). For males, the circumference of horns at the base has been measured to be 43���58 cm (Baker 1903; Pillay 1952), and ear length is about 23 cm. Hind foot length is about 55 cm (Cameron 1929); the proportion of the length of legs to its body mass is probably one of the smallest in the animal kingdom. The eyes of a B. gaurus are normally colored brown. The eyes, however, sometimes appear blue under certain light conditions because of the presence of tapetum lucidum, a membrane behind the retina that makes the eyes of several animals shine in the dark. DISTRIBUTION The global distribution of Bos gaurus, both historically and in present time, has been restricted to southern and southeastern Asia (Fig. 6), which includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China (Yunnan and southern Tibet), India, Lao PDR, Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia), Myanmar (Burma), Nepal, Sri Lanka (extinct), Thailand, and Vietnam. In the last century, the overall distribution of B. gaurus has shrunk by> 80%, and today, B. gaurus is mainly found in protected areas (Schaller 1967; Choudhury 2002; Ahrestani and Karanth 2014). Although the elevational range of habitats that B. gaurus occupies is wide, sea level to 2,700 m, it is found more on hills than on plains. Early natural history accounts of B. gaurus report that B. gaurus prefers hilly areas, particularly during the dry season. However, it is unclear if this behavior is driven by some ecological need or if it is a function of the fact that the majority of all remaining habitat available to B. gaurus is hilly terrain as nearly all suitable habitat in the plains have been lost to agriculture (Schaller 1967). More than 80% of the global population of B. gaurus is found in India, distributed over 3 widely separated geographical regions: the Western Ghats, central India, and northeastern India (Choudhury 2002). The largest population of B. gaurus (3,000 ���5,000) in the world is found in the 5,520 km 2 Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, southern India. Currently, in India, populations of B. gaurus in the Western Ghats are secure; populations in central India are less secure, while populations in northeastern India are vulnerable (Ahrestani and Karanth 2014). Bos gaurus is most probably extinct in Bangladesh; no records have been reported since the 1970s (Khan 1985). It is possible that individuals from Mizoram and Tripura in India occasionally cross over into Bangladesh (Choudhury 2002). The overall population of B. gaurus in Nepal, confined mainly to Chitwan National Park and Parsa Wildlife Reserve, is understood to be less than 500 individuals, but is considered to be stable. In Bhutan, B. gaurus is apparently found all along the southern foothill zone, mostly in protected areas with a few recent sightings outside protected areas. The status of B. gaurus in Myanmar is poorly understood, though during a national tiger survey from over a decade ago, B. gaurus was camera trapped in 11 of 15 sites, with a high rate of capture in 5 of these sites (Lynam 2003). The overall population of B. gaurus in Thailand could be in excess of 1,000 individuals. The outlook for B. gaurus in northern Thailand is currently favorable because an effective antipoaching campaign and reforestation program over the last couple of decades has led to several increasing populations, most notably in Khao Yai National Park, Huai Kha Khaeng, and Thung Yai Naresuan wildlife sanctuaries. Forests are highly fragmented in southern Thailand, and it is assumed that B. gaurus has been largely extirpated in this region. Nevertheless, it may survive along the Malaysian border, where the human population is low and forest fragments are larger because of an ongoing insurgency in that region. Across the border, the B. gaurus population within mainland Malaysia was estimated to be around 500 in 1994; it is suspected that this population has now reduced by 50%. The outlook for B. gaurus in Malaysia is grim, and it possible that it survives at a viable population only in Taman Negara (peninsular Malaysia���s largest national park���Lynam et al. 2007). In China, B. gaurus occurs in Yunnan and southeastern Tibet (Ahrestani and Karanth 2014). Although the exact status of the populations in these regions is unknown, it is understood that the overall population of B. gaurus in China does not exceed 200 (H. Jianlin, pers. comm.). A report from nearly 20 years stated that B. gaurus had been extirpated from much of Yunnan province (Xiang and Santiapillai 1993). In Cambodia, B. gaurus was widespread until the 1960s, after which the overall country population has decreased by nearly 90%. The largest population can be found in eastern Cambodia (Mondulkiri Province), and recent protection measures may have stabilized this population (Timmins and Rattanak 2001; Tordoff et al. 2005). B. gaurus in Lao DPR was estimated to be about 1,000 individuals in the 1990s (Byers et al. 1995); however, since then, multiple populations in Lao have been extirpated, and it is estimated that the current overall population in Lao is no more than 500 individuals. In Vietnam, the current status of B. gaurus in unknown, and it is thought that populations that remain are in serious decline. The majority of B. gaurus in Vietnam are confined to Cat Tien National Park (Polet and Ling 2004; Nguyen 2009). FOSSIL RECORD The first fossil record attributed to Bos gaurus included a partial skull and horns found in the older alluvium of the Narmada (= Narbada) River in central India (Spilsbury 1840). This fossil record, however, was not dated. In general, the origins of Bos and the relationships of fossils that have been attributed to this genus remain problematic, which when combined with the poor fossil record from Africa for the time period 7���10 million years ago has made it difficult to confirm whether or not the Bovini tribe originated in southern Asia (Bibi et al. 2009). 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Indian gaur (Bos gaurus) is one of nine species of wild oxen found in the world. They are largely confined to evergreen, semi-evergreen, and moist deciduous forests, but also occur in dry deciduous forest areas at the periphery of their range. According to the IUCN Red List ( 2017 ), the estimated population of gaur in India is between 15,000 and 35,000 individuals, and probably due to this, despite the gaur's vast range of distribution, they are listed as a vulnerable species by IUCN and listed as schedule-I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act ( 1972 ) as well as in appendix-I in CITES ( 2003 ). Gaur is not a well studied species, and baseline data are thus needed to support conservation efforts. We studied the feeding habits of gaur in Pench Tiger Reserve. Pench Tiger Reserve is the 19th tiger reserve in India, situated in the Seoni and Chhindwara districts of MP, India (21°41'35″N 79°14'54″E). Diet composition of gaur was studied by micro-histological examination of 32 dung piles collected from different sampling plots in different seasons. For this purpose, 169 sampling plots were established at an interval of 200 m. To locate gaur faecal matter, a circular plot of 10 m radius was laid within each sampling plot. Eighty-eight permanent reference slides of available plants were prepared and used for plant fragment identification from the dung piles. A total of 29 plant species were identified from dung piles of gaur. On average, 44.51% of grass-fragments were detected in the diet of gaur, suggesting that gaurs are primarily grazers in the Pench Tiger Reserve.

Here, we present the first complete mitochondrial genome of Malayan Gaur (Bos gaurus hubbacki) inferred using next-generation sequencing. The mitogenome is 16,367 bp in length with the structural organization of a typical bovine mitochondrial arrangement comprising 13 protein-coding genes, 21 tRNAs, and 2 rRNAs. No internal stop codon was found in the protein-coding genes. Phylogenetic tree analysis revealed that Malayan gaur is more closely related to Burmese banteng instead of gaur.

The gaur (Bos gaurus) is one of the two extant wild cattle species that can be found in several Asian countries. This species is threatened by extinction due to declining wild populations. Selembu is the name of the Malayan gaur × domestic cattle hybrid. We planned this study to determine the position of the Malayan gaur and its hybrid, the selembu, in the phylogenetics of the genus Bos (Bos gaurus, Bos javanicus, Bos indicus, and Bos taurus). The itochondrial 12S rRNA gene and the control region (D-loop) were sequenced in 29 Bos samples. Sequences from one water buffalo (Bubalus) were used as an outgroup. Phylogenetic trees were reconstructed using neighbor-joining and maximum parsimony in PAUP 4.0b10 and Bayesian inference in MrBayes 3.1. All tree topologies indicated that the Malayan gaur belongs to its own monophyletic clade that is distinct from other species of the genus Bos. Selembu samples were grouped in zebu and/or taurine cattle clades. The results also indicated that there are significant embranchment differences in the tree topologies between wild (Malayan gaur and banteng/Bali cattle) and domestic (taurine cattle, zebu cattle, and selembu) cattle. The results showed the complete maternal inheritance situation among the studied samples of all cattle species.

The Gaur is under the vulnerable category on Red list and Schedule-I species as per Wildlife Protection Act (1972) in India. Till date, little information is available on group size and age-sex composition of Gaur from Kuldhia Wildlife Sanctuary. Thus, by keeping the same in mind an investigation of group size and age-sex composition of Gaur was carried out during January to June 2013 in Kuldhia Wildlife Sanctuary. In addition, the secondary sources of data from 2007-2013 were also collected from forest department. During investigation 26 direct sightings and 72 saltlick record from different part of the sanctuary was considered. A total of 14 group-sizes were recorded and the group size varied from one to eighteen individuals. Solitary male group constitute 27.55% (n=27), which is the dominant group size from other three group (Mixed, all male and all female). For age and sex composition, gaur mainly classified into four type's i.e. adult male, adult female, juvenile (sub adult male and female) and calf. Total 98 (saltlick and direct sighting data) sightings consisted 453 individuals of gaur in KWLS, out of which 27 sightings were of loners. All the loners were adult male and they were found apart from the groups. Adult male constitute 22.51% (n=102) from the total number of gaur sighted.

In large parts of the biodiversity-rich tropics, various forest governance regimes often coexist, ranging from governmental administration to highly decentralized community management. Two common forms of such governance are protected areas, and community lands open to limited resource extraction. We studied wildlife occurrences in the north-east Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, where the Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary (EWS) is situated adjacent to community lands governed by the Bugun and Sherdukpen tribes. We conducted transect-based mammal sign surveys and camera trapping for mammals (>0.5 kg), and interviewed members of the resident tribes to understand their hunting practices and causes of wildlife declines. Interviews indicated hunting-mediated declines in the abundances of mammals such as the tiger Panthera tigris, gaur Bos gaurus and river otters Lutrogale and Aonyx species. Larger species such as B. gaurus were much more abundant within EWS than outside of it. Community-managed lands harbored smaller bodied species, including some of conservation importance such as the red panda Ailurus fulgens, clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa and golden cat Pardofelis temminckii. Our findings show that protected areas may have important non-substitutive values but adjoining community-managed lands may also have important conservation values for a different set of species.

The gaur (Bos gaurus gaurus) is a threatened species distributed in the Western Ghats, Central India and Himalayan foot hills. Data on group size, composition and structure of gaur in Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, were collected through direct observations. Morphological distinguishing features were used for classification of individuals into different age-sex categories. About 45% of the population was adult females and 18% adult males. The sex ratio of adult male to female was 1: 2.49. The basic unit of the groups was formed by adult females in combination with subadults and juveniles. The mean group size was 6.0398 (loners excluded), and the most frequented groups were of 3, 5 and 7. Solitary bulls formed about 21% of the total sightings. There was seasonal influence on the group size, which is explained mostly by the variations in availability of grass. The births were mostly between the two peak rainfall periods. The observations are discussed in relation to ecological parameters.

Large ungulate population monitoring is a crucial wildlife management tool as ungulates help in structuring and maintaining the large carnivore populations. Reliable data on population status of major ungulate prey species are still non-existent for most of the protected areas in the Indian part of the eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. Twenty transects were monitored over a period of three years (2009–2011) totaling 600 km with an average length of 2 km. The estimated mean density of ungulates was 17.5 km−2 with overall density of 48.7 km−2. The wild pig Sus scrofa had the highest density (6.7 ± 1.2 km−2) among all the prey species followed by barking deer Muntiacus muntjak (3.9 ± 0.6 km−2), sambar Rusa unicolor (3.8 ± 0.5) and gaur Bos gaurus (3.5 ± 0.9 km−2). The estimated total ungulate biomass density was 2182.56 kg km−2. This prey biomass can support up to 7.2 tigers per 100 km−2. However, with two other sympatric carnivores sharing the same resources, the actual tiger numbers that can be supported will be lower. The estimated minor prey species was 31 km−2 significantly 30.6% crop damages were reported by wild pig (p = 0.01) and 35.4% was elephant (p = 0.004). This data on ungulate densities and biomass will be crucial for carnivore conservation in this understudied globally significant biodiversity hotspot.

Background and Aim: Indian bison, Black buck and Nilgai are in danger of extinction because people are hunting them for their meat and horns for sports, trophies etc. These animals are also protected under International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and Conservation on International trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Taking note of the vulnerability of these animals to extinction, we characterized the hair follicle pattern of these animals for future reference. This study included a total of 30 skin samples comprised of 8 samples of bison, 10 samples of black buck and 12 samples of nilgai. Materials and Methods: Skin samples were obtained from Sri Jayachamarajendra Zoological Park, Mysore, Karnataka, India and Bannerghatta Biological Park, Bangalore, Karnataka, India and also from confiscated skins from forest and police officials of Karnataka. The skin samples were processed and horizontal section of 6-7 µm thickness was used for the routine histological technique using different special staining techniques. Observation such as hair follicle pattern, sebaceous glands and sweat glands distribution, blood vessels, nerve fibre, collagen and elastic fibres were noted. Results: In the bison, compound hair follicles were uniformly distributed and were rectangular in shape comprising of a primary hair follicle associated with 3-4 secondary hair follicles in addition to their sebaceous glands. Uniformly distributed coiled tubular sweat glands were also noticed which were lined by simple cuboidal epithelium. In the black buck, the compound hair follicles were densely distributed and were arranged linearly in the dermis of skin. Within the compound follicle, linear arrangements of primary and secondary follicles were observed. Each primary hair follicle was supported by 24 secondary hair follicles and the primary hair follicle was always present at the centre when it was present with 2 secondary hair follicles. In nilgai, the compound hair follicles were densely distributed in the dermis of skin. The primary hair follicles were bilaterally surrounded by 2-3 secondary hair follicles. Each primary and secondary hair follicle was associated with sebaceous glands. Conclusion: The histological pattern of the hair follicle data was established and the hair follicle pattern will be of use in the identification of the wild ruminant skins which are commonly poached by the poachers. It will also be useful to compare the histological characteristics amongst the wild ruminants.