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Purpose: To investigate performance progression from early-junior to peak performance age and compare variety in race distances and swimming strokes between swimmers of various performance levels. Methods: Using a longitudinal data analysis and between-groups comparisons 306,165 annual best times of male swimmers (N = 3897) were used to establish a ranking based on annual best times at peak performance age. Individual performance trajectories were retrospectively analyzed to compare distance and stroke variety. Performances of world-class finalists and international- and national-class swimmers (swimming points: 886 [30], 793 [28], and 698 [28], respectively) were compared across 5 age groups—13–14, 15–16, 17–18, 19–20, and 21+ years—using a 2-way analysis of variance with repeated measures. Results: World-class finalists are not significantly faster than international-class swimmers up to the 17- to 18-year age group (F2|774 = 65, P <.001, η p 2 =.14) but specialize in short- or long-distance races at a younger age. World-class breaststroke finalists show faster breaststroke times compared to their performance in other swimming strokes from an early age (P <.05), while world-class freestyle and individual medley finalists show less significant differences to their performance in other swimming strokes. Conclusions: While federation officials should aim for late talent selection, that is, not before the 17- to 18-year age group, coaches should aim to identify swimmers' preferred race distances early on. However, the required stroke variety seems to be specific for each swimming stroke. Breaststroke swimmers could aim for early and strong specialization, while freestyle and individual medley swimmers could maintain large and very large stroke variety, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To compare performance progression and variety in race distances of comparable lengths (timewise) between pool swimming and track running. Quality of within-sport variety was determined as the performance differences between individual athletes' main and secondary race distances across (top-) elite and (highly-) trained swimmers and runners. Methods: A total of 3,827,947 race times were used to calculate performance points (race times relative to the world record) for freestyle swimmers (n = 12,588 males and n = 7,561 females) and track runners (n = 9,230 males and n = 5,841 females). Athletes were ranked based on their personal best at peak performance age, then annual best times were retrospectively traced throughout adolescence. Results: Performance of world-class swimmers differentiates at an earlier age from their lower ranked peers (15-16 vs. 17-20 year age categories, P < 0.05), but also plateaus earlier towards senior age compared to runners (19-20 vs. 23 + year age category, P < 0.05), respectively. Performance development of swimmers shows a logarithmic pattern, while runners develop linearly. While swimmers compete in more secondary race distances (larger within-sport variety), runners specialize in either sprint, middle- or long-distance early in their career and compete in only 2, 4 or 3 other race distances, respectively. In both sports, sprinters specialize the most (P < 0.05). Distance-variety of middle-distance swimmers covers more longer rather than sprint race distances. Therefore, at peak performance age, (top-) elite female 200 m swimmers show significantly slower sprint performances, i.e., 50 m (P < 0.001) and 100 m (P < 0.001), but not long-distance performances, i.e., 800 m (P = 0.99) and 1,500 m (P = 0.99). In contrast, (top-) elite female 800 m middle-distance runners show significantly slower performances in all their secondary race distances (P < 0.001). (Top-) elite female athletes specialize more than (highly-) trained athletes in both sports (P < 0.05). Conclusions: The comparison to track running and lower ranked swimmers, the early performance plateau towards senior age, and the maintenance of a large within-sport distance variety indicates that (top-) elite sprint swimmers benefit from greater within-sport specialization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim was to provide benchmarks and investigate contribution of start and turn performances in the European Short-Course Swimming Championship. Over all race distances, 932 individual races of male competitors were video captured and the start and turn performances were analysed. Start and turn performances contributed up to 26% and 56% of the total race time. Analysis of variance showed that the 15 m start times were faster for Freestyle and Butterfly (p < 0.001) compared to the other swimming strokes. In-water starts (Backstroke) were slower at the 5 m mark compare to on-block starts (p < 0.001). Tumble turns were faster than open turns (p < 0.001). Multiple linear regression analysis explained 82–97% of total variance in the race results with a decreasing effect of start performance for the longer distance races. Turn performance affected the results across all race distances (p < 0.001). The benchmarks and percentiles provide comparative data for swimmers of different performance levels. Considering the large contribution of start and turn performance to race time and the high effect in the regression model, training regimes that are mainly based on conditioning of free-swimming should be reconsidered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To examine the relationship between cardiorespiratory and accelerometer-derived measures of exercise during trail running and determine the influence of accelerometer location. Methods: Eight trail runners (7 males and 1 female; age 26 [5] y; maximal oxygen consumption [ V ˙ O 2 ] 70 [6] mL·kg−1·min−1) completed a 7-km trail run (elevation gain: 486 m), with concurrent measurements of V ˙ O 2 , heart rate, and accelerations recorded from 3 triaxial accelerometers attached at the upper spine, lower spine, and pelvis. External exercise intensity was quantified from the accelerometers using PlayerLoad™ per minute and accelerometry-derived average net force. External exercise volume was calculated using accumulated PlayerLoad and the product of average net force and duration (impulse). Internal intensity was calculated using heart rate and V ˙ O 2 -metrics; internal volume was calculated from total energy expenditure (work). All metrics were analyzed during both uphill (UH) and downhill (DH) sections of the trail run. Results:PlayerLoad and average net force were greater during DH compared with UH for all sensor locations (P ≤.004). For all accelerometer metrics, there was a sensor position × gradient interaction (F2,1429.003; P <.001). The upper spine was lower compared with both pelvis (P ≤.003) and lower spine (P ≤.002) for all accelerometer metrics during both UH and DH running. Relationships between accelerometer and cardiorespiratory measures during UH running ranged from moderate negative to moderate positive (r = −.31 to.41). Relationships were stronger during DH running where there was a nearly perfect correlation between work and impulse (r =.91; P <.001). Conclusions: Simultaneous monitoring of cardiorespiratory and accelerometer-derived measures during trail running is suggested because of the disparity between internal and external intensities during changes in gradient. Sensor positioning close to the center of mass is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To investigate the cardiorespiratory and metabolic response of trail running and evaluate whether heart rate (HR) adequately reflects the exercise intensity or if the tissue-saturation index (TSI) could provide a more accurate measure during running in hilly terrain. Methods: Seventeen competitive runners (4 women, ...O2max, 55 ± 6 mL ⋅ kg-1 ⋅ min-1; 13 men, ...O2max, 68 ± 6 mL ⋅ kg-1 ⋅ min-1) performed a time trial on an off-road trail course. The course was made up of 2 laps covering a total distance of 7 km and included 6 steep uphill and downhill sections with an elevation gain of 486 m. All runners were equipped with a portable breath-by-breath gas analyzer, HR belt, global positioning system receiver, and near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) device to measure the TSI. Results: During the trail run, the exercise intensity in the uphill and downhill sections was 94% ± 2% and 91% ± 3% of maximal heart rate, respectively, and 84% ± 8% and 68% ± 7% of ...O2max, respectively. The oxygen uptake (...O2) increased in the uphill sections and decreased in the downhill sections (P < .01). Although HR was unaffected by the altering slope conditions, the TSI was inversely correlated to the changes in ...O2 (r= -.70, P < .05). Conclusions: HR was unaffected by the continuously changing exercise intensity; however, TSI reflected the alternations in ...O2. Recently used exclusively for scientific purposes, this NIRS-based variable may offer a more accurate alternative than HR to monitor running intensity in the future, especially for training and competition in hilly terrain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To determine the reliability, usefulness, and validity of 3 different change-of-direction tests on a SpeedCourt (SCCODT) in team-sport players. Methods: For reliability and usefulness, 30 players (16 female and 14 male: age 19 ± 3 y, height 169 ± 30 cm, body mass 70 ±11 kg) performed 3 SCCODTS differing in duration (7--45 s) on 3 occasions 1 wk apart. The total sprint times (TT) and time to change direction (TCD) were analyzed for each SCCODT. For validity, 14 players performed the Illinois Agility Test (IAT) and 505 test on a separate occasion. Results: TT for all SCCODTS is reliable (ICC > .79, CV < 5%), useful (TE < SWC0.5), and valid (IAT r > .71, P < .05; 505 test r > .54, P < .05). SCCODT variable TCD may be useful (TE = SWC0.5) but shows limited reliability with ICC >.65 and a CV >5%. Conclusions: All SCCODTS are reliable, useful, and valid to detect moderate performance changes regarding TT, with limited reliability for TCD. The quality of assessment improves when players are well familiarized with the SCCODT [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]