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Rationale Severe acute paediatric asthma may require treatment escalation beyond systemic corticosteroids, inhaled bronchodilators and low-flow oxygen. Current large asthma datasets report parenteral therapy only. Objectives To identify the use and type of escalation of treatment in children presenting to hospital with acute severe asthma. Methods Retrospective cohort study of children with an emergency department diagnosis of asthma or wheeze at 18 Australian and New Zealand hospitals. The main outcomes were use and type of escalation treatment (defined as any of intensive care unit admission, nebulised magnesium, respiratory support or parenteral bronchodilator treatment) and hospital length of stay (LOS). Measurements and main results Of 14 029 children (median age 3 (IQR 1-3) years; 62.9% male), 1020 (7.3%, 95% CI 6.9% to 7.7%) had treatment escalation. Children with treatment escalation had a longer LOS (44.2 hours, IQR 27.3-63.2 hours) than children without escalation 6.7 hours, IQR 3.5-16.3 hours; p<0.001). The most common treatment escalations were respiratory support alone (400; 2.9%, 95% CI 2.6% to 3.1%), parenteral bronchodilator treatment alone (380; 2.7%, 95% CI 2.5% to 3.0%) and both respiratory support and parenteral bronchodilator treatment (209; 1.5%, 95% CI 1.3% to 1.7%). Respiratory support was predominantly nasal high-flow therapy (99.0%). The most common intravenous medication regimens were: magnesium alone (50.4%), magnesium and aminophylline (24.6%) and magnesium and salbutamol (10.0%). Conclusions Overall, 7.3% children with acute severe asthma received some form of escalated treatment, with 4.2% receiving parenteral bronchodilators and 4.3% respiratory support. There is wide variation treatment escalation.

AIM: This study aimed to determine whether targeted interventions, proven to be effective at improving evidence-based bronchiolitis management, changed factors previously found to influence variation in bronchiolitis management. METHODS: This survey assessed change in factors influencing clinicians' (nurses and doctors) bronchiolitis management at baseline and post-intervention in a cluster randomised controlled trial of targeted, theory-informed interventions aiming to de-implement non-evidence-based bronchiolitis management (no use of chest X-ray, salbutamol, antibiotics, glucocorticoids and adrenaline). Survey questions addressed previously identified factors influencing bronchiolitis management from six Theoretical Domains Framework domains (knowledge; skills; beliefs about consequences; social/professional role and identity; environmental context and resources; social influences). Data analysis was descriptive. RESULTS: A total of 1958 surveys (baseline = 996; post-intervention = 962) were completed by clinicians from the emergency department and paediatric inpatient units from 26 hospitals (intervention = 13; control = 13). Targeted bronchiolitis interventions significantly increased knowledge of the Australasian Bronchiolitis Guideline (intervention clinicians = 74%, control = 39%, difference = 34.7%, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 25.6-43.8%), improved skills in diagnosing (intervention doctors = 89%, control = 76%, difference = 12.6%, 95% CI = 6.2-19%) and managing bronchiolitis (intervention doctors = 87%, control = 76%, difference = 9.9%, 95% CI = 3.7-16.1%), positively influenced both beliefs about consequences regarding salbutamol use (intervention clinicians = 49%, control = 29%, difference = 20.3%, 95% CI = 13.2-27.4%) and nurses questioning non-evidence-based bronchiolitis management (chest X-ray: intervention = 71%, control = 51%, difference = 20.8%, 95% CI = 11.4-30.2%; glucocorticoids: intervention = 64%, control = 40%, difference = 21.9%, 95% CI

OBJECTIVE: Paediatric status epilepticus (SE) has potential for long-term sequelae. Existing data demonstrate delays to aspects of care. The objective of the present study was to examine the feasibility of collecting data on children with paediatric SE and describe current management strategies in pre-hospital and in-hospital settings. METHODS: A pilot, prospective, observational cohort study of children 4 weeks to 16 years of age with SE, in four EDs in Australia. Clinical details including medications administered, duration of seizure and short-term outcomes were collected. Follow up occurred by telephone at 1 month. RESULTS: We enrolled 167 children with SE. Mean age was 5.4 years (standard deviation [SD] 4.1), and 81 (49%) male. Median seizure duration was 10 min (interquartile range 7-30). Midazolam was the first medication administered in 87/100 (87%) instances, mean dose of 0.21 mg/kg (SD 0.13). The dose of midazolam was adequate in 30 (35%), high (>0.2 mg/kg) in 44 (51%) and low (<0.1 mg/kg) in 13 (15%). For second-line agents, levetiracetam was administered on 33/55 (60%) occasions, whereas phenytoin and phenobarbitone were administered on 11/55 (20%) occasions each. Mean dose of levetiracetam was 26.4 mg/kg (SD 13.5). One hundred and four (62%) patients were admitted to hospital, with 13 (8%) admitted to ICU and seven (4%) intubated. CONCLUSION: In children presenting with SE in Australia medical management differed from previous reports, with midazolam as the preferred benzodiazepine, and levetiracetam replacing phenytoin as the preferred second-line agent. This pilot study indicates the feasibility of a paediatric SE registry and its utility to understand and optimise practice.

BACKGROUND: The Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network (PECARN) head trauma clinical decision rules informed the development of algorithms that risk stratify the management of children based on their risk of clinically important traumatic brain injury (ciTBI). We aimed to determine the rate of ciTBI for each PECARN algorithm risk group in an external cohort of patients and that of ciTBI associated with different combinations of high- or intermediate-risk predictors. METHODS: This study was a secondary analysis of a large multicenter prospective data set, including patients with Glasgow Coma Scale scores of 14 or 15 conducted in Australia and New Zealand. We calculated ciTBI rates with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for each PECARN risk category and combinations of related predictor variables. RESULTS: Of the 15,163 included children, 4,011 (25.5%) were aged <2 years. The frequency of ciTBI was 8.5% (95% CI = 6.0%-11.6%), 0.2% (95% CI = 0.0%-0.6%), and 0.0% (95% CI = 0.0%-0.2%) in the high-, intermediate-, and very-low-risk groups, respectively, for children <2 years and 5.7% (95% CI = 4.4%-7.2%), 0.7% (95% CI = 0.5%-1.0%), and 0.0% (95% CI = 0.0%-0.1%) in older children. The isolated high-risk predictor with the highest risk of ciTBI was "signs of palpable skull fracture" for younger children (11.4%, 95% CI = 5.3%-20.5%) and "signs of basilar skull fracture" in children ≥2 years (11.1%, 95% CI = 3.7%-24.1%). For older children in the intermediate-risk category, the presence of all four predictors had the highest risk of ciTBI (25.0%, 95% CI = 0.6%-80.6%) followed by the combination of "severe mechanism of injury" and "severe headache" (7.7%, 95% CI = 0.2%-36.0%). The very few children <2 years at intermediate risk with ciTBI precluded further analysis. CONCLUSIONS: The risk estimates of ciTBI for each of the PECARN algorithms risk group were consistent with the original PECARN study. The risk estimates of ciTBI within the high- and intermediate-risk predi

IMPORTANCE: In developed countries, bronchiolitis is the most common reason for infants to be admitted to the hospital, and all international bronchiolitis guidelines recommend supportive care; however, significant variation in practice continues with infants receiving non-evidence-based therapies. Deimplementation research aims to reduce the use of low-value care, and advancing science in this area is critical to delivering evidence-based care. OBJECTIVE: To determine the effectiveness of targeted interventions vs passive dissemination of an evidence-based bronchiolitis guideline in improving treatment of infants with bronchiolitis. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: This international, multicenter cluster randomized clinical trial included 26 hospitals (clusters) in Australia and New Zealand providing tertiary or secondary pediatric care (13 randomized to intervention, 13 to control) during the 2017 bronchiolitis season. Data were collected on 8003 infants for the 3 bronchiolitis seasons (2014-2016) before the implementation period and 3727 infants for the implementation period (2017 bronchiolitis season, May 1-November 30). Data were analyzed from November 16, 2018, to December 9, 2020. INTERVENTIONS: Interventions were developed using theories of behavior change to target key factors that influence bronchiolitis management. These interventions included site-based clinical leads, stakeholder meetings, a train-the-trainer workshop, targeted educational delivery, other educational and promotional materials, and audit and feedback. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: The primary outcome was compliance during the first 24 hours of care with no use of chest radiography, albuterol, glucocorticoids, antibiotics, and epinephrine, measured retrospectively from medical records of randomly selected infants with bronchiolitis who presented to the hospital. There were no patient-level exclusions. RESULTS: A total of 26 hospitals were randomized without dropouts. Analysis was by inten

BACKGROUND: Despite international guidelines providing evidence-based recommendations on appropriate management of infants with bronchiolitis, wide variation in practice occurs. This results in infants receiving care of no benefit, with associated cost and is potentially harmful. Theoretical frameworks are increasingly used to develop interventions, utilising behaviour change techniques specifically chosen to target factors contributing to practice variation, with de-implementation often viewed as harder than implementing. This paper describes the stepped process using the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) to develop targeted, theory-informed interventions which subsequently successfully improved management of infants with bronchiolitis by de-implementing ineffective therapies. Explicit description of the process and rationale used in developing de-implementation interventions is critical to dissemination of these practices into real world clinical practice. METHODS: A stepped approach was used: (1) Identify evidence-based recommendations and practice variation as targets for change, (2) Identify factors influencing practice change (barriers and enablers) to be addressed, and (3) Identification and development of interventions (behaviour change techniques and methods of delivery) addressing influencing factors, considering evidence of effectiveness, feasibility, local relevance and acceptability. The mode of delivery for the intervention components was informed by evidence from implementation science systematic reviews, and setting specific feasibility and practicality. RESULTS: Five robust evidence-based management recommendations, targeting the main variation in bronchiolitis management were identified: namely, no use of chest x-ray, salbutamol, glucocorticoids, antibiotics, and adrenaline. Interventions developed to target recommendations addressed seven TDF domains (identified following qualitative clinician interviews (n = 20)) with 23 behaviour change techni

OBJECTIVE: With most paediatric emergency research in Australia conducted at tertiary EDs, it is important to understand how presentations differ between those at tertiary paediatric EDs and all other EDs. METHODS: Retrospective epidemiological study assessing paediatric case-mix and time-based performance metrics (aged 0-14 years) obtained from a national health service minimum dataset for the 2017-2018 financial year, comparing tertiary paediatric EDs and all other EDs. We defined a 'major tertiary paediatric hospital' as one which was accredited for training in both paediatric emergency medicine and paediatric intensive care. RESULTS: Of the 1 695 854 paediatric ED presentations, 23.8% were seen in nine major metropolitan tertiary paediatric hospitals. Reasons for presentations were more distinctive between cohorts among children aged 10-14 years, where psychiatric illness (5.2% vs 2.5%) and neurological illness (4.5% vs 2.5%) were more commonly seen in major tertiary paediatric EDs. Australian Indigenous children were significantly less likely to present to tertiary paediatric EDs (3.0%), compared with other EDs (9.7%) (odds ratio 0.27, 95% confidence interval 0.26-0.27). While median waiting times were longer in major tertiary paediatric EDs (28 min [interquartile range 11-65]) than in other EDs (20 min [interquartile range 8-48], P < 0.001), patients were also less likely to leave without being seen (5.5% in tertiary paediatric EDs vs 6.9% in other EDs; odds ratio 0.80, 95% confidence interval 0.78-0.81). CONCLUSIONS: The present study identified key areas of difference in paediatric presentations between tertiary paediatric EDs and other EDs. It is vital to broaden paediatric ED research beyond tertiary paediatric centres, to ensure relevance and generalisability.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Despite evidence that preferential use of balanced/buffered fluids may improve outcomes compared with chloride-rich 0.9% saline, saline remains the most commonly used fluid for children with septic shock. We aim to determine if resuscitation with balanced/buffered fluids as part of usual care will improve outcomes, in part through reduced kidney injury and without an increase in adverse effects, compared to 0.9% saline for children with septic shock. METHODS: The Pragmatic Pediatric Trial of Balanced versus Normal Saline Fluid in Sepsis (PRoMPT BOLUS) study is an international, open-label pragmatic interventional trial being conducted at > 40 sites in the USA, Canada, and Australia/New Zealand starting on August 25, 2020, and continuing for 5 years. Children > 6 months to < 18 years treated for suspected septic shock with abnormal perfusion in an emergency department will be randomized to receive either balanced/buffered crystalloids (intervention) or 0.9% saline (control) for initial resuscitation and maintenance fluids for up to 48 h. Eligible patients are enrolled and randomized using serially numbered, opaque envelopes concurrent with clinical care. Given the life-threatening nature of septic shock and narrow therapeutic window to start fluid resuscitation, patients may be enrolled under "exception from informed consent" in the USA or "deferred consent" in Canada and Australia/New Zealand. Other than fluid type, all decisions about timing, volume, and rate of fluid administration remain at the discretion of the treating clinicians. For pragmatic reasons, clinicians will not be blinded to study fluid type. Anticipated enrollment is 8800 patients. The primary outcome will be major adverse kidney events within 30 days (MAKE30), a composite of death, renal replacement therapy, and persistent kidney dysfunction. Additional effectiveness, safety, and biologic outcomes will also be analyzed. DISCUSSION: PRoMPT BOLUS will provide high-quality evidence f

OBJECTIVE: Children frequently present with head injuries to acute care settings. Although international paediatric clinical practice guidelines for head injuries exist, they do not address all considerations related to triage, imaging, observation versus admission, transfer, discharge and follow-up of mild to moderate head injuries relevant to the Australian and New Zealand context. The Paediatric Research in Emergency Departments International Collaborative (PREDICT) set out to develop an evidence-based, locally applicable, practical clinical guideline for the care of children with mild to moderate head injuries presenting to acute care settings. METHODS: A multidisciplinary Guideline Working Group (GWG) developed 33 questions in three key areas - triage, imaging and discharge of children with mild to moderate head injuries presenting to acute care settings. We identified existing high-quality guidelines and from these guidelines recommendations were mapped to clinical questions. Updated literature searches were undertaken, and key new evidence identified. Recommendations were created through either adoption, adaptation or development of de novo recommendations. The guideline was revised after a period of public consultation. RESULTS: The GWG developed 71 recommendations (evidence-informed = 35, consensus-based = 17, practice points = 19), relevant to the Australian and New Zealand setting. The guideline is presented as three documents: (i) a detailed Full Guideline summarising the evidence underlying each recommendation; (ii) a Guideline Summary; and (iii) a clinical Algorithm: Imaging and Observation Decision-making for Children with Head Injuries. CONCLUSIONS: The PREDICT Australian and New Zealand Guideline for Mild to Moderate Head Injuries in Children provides high-level evidence and practical guidance for front line clinicians.

AIM: The Australian 'There is no place like home' project is implementing a paediatric low-risk febrile neutropenia (FN) programme across eight paediatric hospitals. We sought to identify the impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on programme implementation. METHODS: Paediatric oncology, infectious diseases and emergency medicine health-care workers and parent/carers were surveyed to explore the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on home-based FN care. Online surveys were distributed nationally to health-care workers involved in care of children with FN and to parents or carers of children with cancer. RESULTS: Surveys were completed by 78 health-care workers and 32 parents/carers. Overall, 95% of health-care workers had confidence in the safety of home-based FN care, with 35% reporting changes at their own hospitals in response to the pandemic that made them more comfortable with this model. Compared to pre-pandemic, >50% of parent/carers were now more worried about attending the hospital with their child and >80% were interested in receiving home-based FN care. Among both groups, increased telehealth access and acceptance of home-based care, improved patient quality of life and reduced risk of nosocomial infection were identified as programme enablers, while re-direction of resources due to COVID-19 and challenges in implementing change during a crisis were potential barriers. CONCLUSION: There is strong clinician and parent/carer support for home-based management of low-risk FN across Australia. Changes made to the delivery of cancer care in response to the pandemic have generally increased acceptance for home-based treatments and opportunities exist to leverage these to refine the low-risk FN programme.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate patient-level factors predictive for computed tomography of the brain (CTB) use and abnormality in head injured children in Australia and New Zealand. METHODS: Retrospective data from tertiary, urban/suburban and regional/rural EDs including factors predictive for CTB use and abnormality. RESULTS: Of 3072 children at 31 EDs, 212 (6.9%) had a CTB scan, of which 66 (31%) were abnormal. Increasing age, serious mechanisms of injury and decreasing Glasgow Coma Score were predictive for ordering CTB. Decreasing age was predictive for CTB abnormalities. Other factors were not. CONCLUSION: Patient-level drivers of CTB use in children in Australia and New Zealand are consistent with international data.

The Paediatric Research in Emergency Departments International Collaborative (PREDICT) released the Australian and New Zealand Guideline for Mild to Moderate Head Injuries in Children in 2021. We describe innovative and practical methods used to develop this guideline. Informed by GRADE-ADOLOPMENT and ADAPTE frameworks, we adopted or adapted recommendations from multiple high-quality guidelines or developed de novo recommendations. A Guideline Steering Committee and a multidisciplinary Guideline Working Group of 25 key stakeholder representatives formulated the guideline scope and developed 33 clinical questions. We identified four relevant high-quality source guidelines; their recommendations were mapped to clinical questions. The choice of guideline recommendation, if more than one guideline addressed a question, was based on its appropriateness, currency of the literature, access to evidence, and relevance. Updated literature searches identified 440 new studies and key new evidence identified. The decision to develop adopted, adapted or de novo recommendations was based on the supporting evidence-base and its transferability to the local setting. The guideline underwent a 12-week consultation period. The final guideline consisted of 35 evidence-informed and 17 consensus-based recommendations and 19 practice points. An algorithm to inform imaging and observation decision-making was also developed. The resulting process was an efficient and rigorous way to develop a guideline based on existing high-quality guidelines from different settings.

BACKGROUND: Bronchiolitis is the most common reason for hospitalisation in infants. All international bronchiolitis guidelines recommend supportive care, yet considerable variation in practice continues with infants receiving non-evidence based therapies. We developed six targeted, theory-informed interventions; clinical leads, stakeholder meeting, train-the-trainer, education delivery, other educational materials, and audit and feedback. A cluster randomised controlled trial (cRCT) found the interventions to be effective in reducing use of five non-evidence based therapies in infants with bronchiolitis. This process evaluation paper aims to determine whether the interventions were implemented as planned (fidelity), explore end-users' perceptions of the interventions and evaluate cRCT outcome data with intervention fidelity data. METHODS: A pre-specified mixed-methods process evaluation was conducted alongside the cRCT, guided by frameworks for process evaluation of cRCTs and complex interventions. Quantitative data on the fidelity, dose and reach of interventions were collected from the 13 intervention hospitals during the study and analysed using descriptive statistics. Qualitative data identifying perception and acceptability of interventions were collected from 42 intervention hospital clinical leads on study completion and analysed using thematic analysis. RESULTS: The cRCT found targeted, theory-informed interventions improved bronchiolitis management by 14.1%. The process evaluation data found variability in how the intervention was delivered at the cluster and individual level. Total fidelity scores ranged from 55 to 98% across intervention hospitals (mean = 78%; SD = 13%). Fidelity scores were highest for use of clinical leads (mean = 98%; SD = 7%), and lowest for use of other educational materials (mean = 65%; SD = 19%) and audit and feedback (mean = 65%; SD = 20%). Clinical leads reflected positively about the interventions, with time constraints being th

AIM: To assess computerised tomography (CT) use and the risk of intracranial haemorrhage (ICH) in children with bleeding disorders following a head trauma. METHODS: Design: Multicentre prospective observational study. SETTING: 10 paediatric emergency departments (ED) in Australia and New Zealand. PATIENTS: Children <18 years with and without bleeding disorders assessed in ED following head trauma between April 2011 and November 2014. INTERVENTIONS: Data collection of patient characteristics, management and outcomes. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Rate of CT use and frequency of ICH on CT. RESULTS: Of 20 137 patients overall, 103 (0.5%) had a congenital or acquired bleeding disorder. CT use was higher in these patients compared with children without bleeding disorders (30.1 vs. 10.4%; rate ratio 2.91 95% CI 2.16-3.91). Only one of 31 (3.2%) children who underwent CT in the ED had an ICH. This patient rapidly deteriorated in the ED on arrival and required neurosurgery. None of the patients with bleeding disorders who did not have a CT obtained in the ED or had an initial negative CT had evidence of ICH on follow up. CONCLUSIONS: Although children with a bleeding disorder and a head trauma more often received a CT scan in the ED, their risk of ICH seemed low and appeared associated with post-traumatic clinical findings. Selective CT use combined with observation may be cautiously considered in these children based on clinical presentation and severity of bleeding disorder.

OBJECTIVES: Variation in the management of paediatric head injury has been identified worldwide. This prospective study describes imaging and admission practices of children presenting with head injury across 10 hospital EDs in Australia and New Zealand. METHODS: Prospective observational multicentre study of 20 137 children (under 18 years) as a planned secondary analysis of the Australasian Paediatric Head Injury Rules Study. All presentations with head injury without prior imaging were eligible for inclusion. Variations in rates of computed tomography of the brain (CTB) and admission practices between sites, ED type and country were investigated, as were clinically important traumatic brain injuries (ciTBIs) and abnormal CTBs within CTBs. RESULTS: Among the 20 137 enrolled patients, the site adjusted CTB rate was 11.2% (95% confidence interval [CI] 7.8-14.6); individual sites ranged from 2.6 to 18.6%. ciTBI was found in 0.4-2.2%, with abnormal scans documented in 0.7-6.5%. As a percentage of CTBs undertaken, ciTBIs were found in 12.8% (95% CI 10.8-14.7) with individual site variation of 8.8-16.9%, and no statistically significant difference noted, and traumatic abnormalities in 29.3% (95% CI 26.2-32.3) with individual site variation between 19.4 and 35.6%. Among those under 2 years,traumatic abnormalities were found in greater than 50% of CTBs at 90% of sites. Admission rate overall was 24.0% (site adjusted) with wide variation between sites (5.0-48.9%). CONCLUSION: Across the 10 largely tertiary EDs included in this study, the overall CTB rate was low with no significant variation between sites when adjusted for ciTBIs.

Multicentre research provides advantages over single‐centre research by maximising available patient numbers while pooling varied expertise and resources available across different participating investigators and sites. The increased complexity of multicentre regulatory approvals, communication and study management, can be mitigated by the formation of a research network where multicentre efforts move from ad hoc, single projects to formalised ongoing collaboration. Network research helps prioritise research efforts and importantly fosters the development of a collaborative track record in terms of research expertise, research capacity and grant success. It also has the potential to rapidly change patient care across many hospitals as research results will be more generalizable and definitive. This paper sets out the key elements of network research, its benefits and possible challenges drawing on the example of PREDICT (Paediatric Research in Emergency Departments International Collaborative) an established paediatric emergency research network in Australia and New Zealand.

BACKGROUND: Management of children with minor blunt head trauma often includes a period of observation to determine the need for cranial computed tomography (CT). Our objective was to estimate the effect of planned observation on CT use for each Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network (PECARN) traumatic brain injury (TBI) risk group among children with minor head trauma. METHODS: This was a secondary analysis of a prospective observational study at 10 emergency departments (EDs) in Australia and New Zealand, including 18,471 children < 18 years old, presenting within 24 hours of blunt head trauma, with Glasgow Coma Scale scores of 14 to 15. The planned observation cohort was defined by those with planned observation and no immediate plan for cranial CT. The comparison cohort included the rest of the patients who were either not observed or for whom a decision to obtain a cranial CT was made immediately after ED assessment. The outcome clinically important TBI (ciTBI) was defined as death due to head trauma, neurosurgery, intubation for > 24 hours for head trauma, or hospitalization for ≥ 2 nights in association with a positive cranial CT scan. We estimated the odds of cranial CT use with planned observation, adjusting for patient characteristics, PECARN TBI risk group, history of seizure, time from injury, and hospital clustering, using a generalized linear model with mixed effects. RESULTS: The cranial CT rate in the total cohort was 8.6%, and 0.8% had ciTBI. The planned observation group had 4,945 (27%) children compared to 13,526 (73%) in the no planned observation group. Cranial CT use was significantly lower with planned observation (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 0.2, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.1 to 0.1), with no difference in missed ciTBI rates. There was no difference in the odds of cranial CT use with planned observation for the group at very low risk for ciTBI (adjusted OR = 0.9, 95% CI = 0.5 to 1.4). Planned observation was associated with sig

AIM: To characterise the causes, clinical characteristics and short-term outcomes of neonates who presented to paediatric emergency departments with a head injury. METHODS: Secondary analysis of a prospective data set of paediatric head injuries at 10 emergency departments in Australia and New Zealand. Patients without neuroimaging were followed up by telephone call. We extracted epidemiological information, clinical findings and outcomes in neonates (≤28 days). RESULTS: Of 20 137 children with head injuries, 93 (0.5%) occurred in neonates. These were mostly fall-related (75.2%), commonly from a care giver's arms, or due to being accidentally struck by a person/object (20.4%). There were three cases of non-accidental head injuries (3.2%). Most neonates were asymptomatic (67.7%) and many had no findings on examination (47.3%). Most neonates had a Glasgow Coma Scale 15 (89.2%) or 14 (7.5%). A total of 15.1% presented with vomiting and 5.4% were abnormally drowsy. None had experienced a loss of consciousness. The most common findings on examination were scalp haematoma (28.0%) and possible palpable skull fracture (6.5%); 8.6% underwent computed tomography brain scan and 4.3% received an ultrasound. Five of eight computed tomography scan (5.4% of neonates overall) showed traumatic brain injury and two of four (2.2% overall) had traumatic brain injury on ultrasound. Thirty-seven percent were admitted, one patient was intubated and none had neurosurgery or died. CONCLUSIONS: Neonatal head injuries are rare with a mostly benign short-term outcome and are appropriate for observation. However, non-accidental injuries need to be considered.

AIM: Abusive head trauma (AHT) is associated with high morbidity and mortality. We aimed to describe characteristics of cases where clinicians suspected AHT and confirmed AHT cases and describe how they differed. METHODS: This was a planned secondary analysis of a prospective multicentre cohort study of head injured children aged <18 years across five centres in Australia and New Zealand. We identified cases of suspected AHT when emergency department clinicians raised suspicion on a clinical report form or based on research assistant-assigned epidemiology codes. Cases were categorised as AHT positive, negative and indeterminate after multidisciplinary review. Suspected and confirmed AHT and non-AHT cases were compared using odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: AHT was suspected in 70 of 13 371 (0.5%) head-injured children. Of these, 23 (32.9%) were categorised AHT positive, 18 (25.7%) AHT indeterminate and 29 (27.1%) AHT negative. Median age was 0.8 years in suspected, 1.4 years in confirmed AHT and 4.1 years in non-AHT cases. Odds ratios (95% confidence interval) for presenting features and outcomes in confirmed AHT versus non-AHT were: loss of consciousness 2.8 (1.2-6.9), scalp haematoma 3.9 (1.7-9.0), seizures 12.0 (4.0-35.5), Glasgow coma scale ≤12 30.3 (11.8-78.0), abnormal neuroimaging 38.3 (16.8-87.5), intensive care admission 53.4 (21.6-132.5) and mortality 105.5 (22.2-500.4). CONCLUSIONS: Emergency department presentations of children with suspected and confirmed AHT had higher rates of loss of consciousness, scalp haematomas, seizures and low Glasgow coma scale. These cases were at increased risk of abnormal computed tomography scans, need for intensive care and death.

Background: Differentiating bacterial from viral pneumonia is important for guiding targeted management and judicious use of antibiotics. We assessed if clinical characteristics and blood inflammatory biomarkers could be used to distinguish bacterial from viral pneumonia. Methods: Western Australian children (≤17 years) hospitalized with radiologically-confirmed community-acquired pneumonia were recruited and clinical symptoms and management data were collected. C-reactive protein (CRP), white cell counts (WCC) and absolute neutrophil counts (ANC) were measured as part of routine care. Clinical characteristics and biomarker levels were compared between cases with definite bacterial pneumonia (clinical empyema and/or bacteria detected in blood or pleural fluid), presumed viral pneumonia (presence of ≥1 virus in nasopharyngeal swab without criteria for definite bacterial pneumonia), and other pneumonia cases (pneumonia in the absence of criteria for either definite bacterial or presumed viral pneumonia). The area-under-curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for varying biomarker levels were used to characterise their utility for discriminating definite bacterial from presumed viral pneumonia. For biomarkers with AUC > 0.8 (fair discriminator), Youden index was measured to determine the optimal cut-off threshold, and sensitivity, specificity, predictive values (positive and negative) were calculated. We investigated whether better discrimination could be achieved by combining biomarker values with the presence/absence of symptoms. Results: From May 2015 to October 2017, 230 pneumonia cases were enrolled: 30 with definite bacterial pneumonia, 118 with presumed viral pneumonia and 82 other pneumonia cases. Differences in clinical signs and symptoms across the groups were noted; more definite bacterial pneumonia cases required intravenous fluid and oxygen supplementation than presumed viral or other pneumonia cases. CRP, WCC and ANC were substant

INTRODUCTION: Acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure (AHRF) in children is the most frequent reason for non-elective hospital admission. During the initial phase, AHRF is a clinical syndrome defined for the purpose of this study by an oxygen requirement and caused by pneumonia, lower respiratory tract infections, asthma or bronchiolitis. Up to 20% of these children with AHRF can rapidly deteriorate requiring non-invasive or invasive ventilation. Nasal high-flow (NHF) therapy has been used by clinicians for oxygen therapy outside intensive care settings to prevent escalation of care. A recent randomised trial in infants with bronchiolitis has shown that NHF therapy reduces the need to escalate therapy. No similar data is available in the older children presenting with AHRF. In this study we aim to investigate in children aged 1 to 4 years presenting with AHRF if early NHF therapy compared with standard-oxygen therapy reduces hospital length of stay and if this is cost-effective compared with standard treatment. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: The study design is an open-labelled randomised multicentre trial comparing early NHF and standard-oxygen therapy and will be stratified by sites and into obstructive and non-obstructive groups. Children aged 1 to 4 years (n=1512) presenting with AHRF to one of the participating emergency departments will be randomly allocated to NHF or standard-oxygen therapy once the eligibility criteria have been met (oxygen requirement with transcutaneous saturation <92%/90% (dependant on hospital standard threshold), diagnosis of AHRF, admission to hospital and tachypnoea ≥35 breaths/min). Children in the standard-oxygen group can receive rescue NHF therapy if escalation is required. The primary outcome is hospital length of stay. Secondary outcomes will include length of oxygen therapy, proportion of intensive care admissions, healthcare resource utilisation and associated costs. Analyses will be conducted on an intention-to-treat basis. ETHICS AND DI

OBJECTIVE: Although there is a large body of research on head injury (HI) inflicted by caregivers in young children, little is known about intentional HI in older children and inflicted HI by perpetrators other than carers. Therefore, we set out to describe epidemiology, demographics and severity of intentional HIs in childhood. METHODS: A planned secondary analysis of a prospective multicentre cohort study was conducted in 10 EDs in Australia and New Zealand, including children aged <18 years with HIs. Epidemiology codes were used to prospectively code the injuries. Demographic and clinical information including the rate of clinically important traumatic brain injury (ciTBI: HI leading to death, neurosurgery, intubation >1 day or admission ≥2 days with abnormal computed tomography [CT]) was descriptively analysed. RESULTS: Intentional injuries were identified in 372 of 20 137 (1.8%) head-injured children. Injuries were caused by caregivers (103, 27.7%), by peers (97, 26.1%), by siblings (47, 12.6%), by strangers (35, 9.4%), by persons with unknown relation to the patient (21, 5.6%), other intentional injuries (8, 2.2%) or undetermined intent (61, 16.4%). About 75.7% of victims of assault by caregivers were <2 years, whereas in other categories, only 4.9% were <2 years. Overall, 66.9% of victims were male. Rates of CT performance and abnormal CT varied: assault by caregivers 68.9%/47.6%, by peers 18.6%/27.8%, by strangers 37.1%/5.7%. ciTBI rate was 22.3% in assault by caregivers, 3.1% when caused by peers and 0.0% with other perpetrators. CONCLUSIONS: Intentional HI is infrequent in children. The most frequently identified perpetrators are caregivers and peers. Caregiver injuries are particularly severe.

AIM: Bronchiolitis is the most common lower respiratory tract disorder in infants aged less than 12 months, and research has demonstrated that there is substantial variation in practice patterns despite treatment being well defined. In order to align and improve the consistency of the management of bronchiolitis, an evidence-based guideline was developed for the Australasian population. METHODS: The guideline development committee included representation from emergency and paediatric specialty medical and nursing personnel in addition to geographical representation across Australia and New Zealand - rural, remote and metropolitan. Formulation of the guideline included identification of population, intervention, comparator, outcomes and time questions and was associated with an extensive literature search from 2000 to 2015. Evidence was summarised and graded using the National Health and Medical Research Council and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation methodology, and consensus within the guideline group was sought using nominal group technique principles to formulate the clinical practice recommendations. The guideline was reviewed and endorsed by key paediatric health bodies. RESULTS: The guideline consists of a usable clinical interface for bedside functionality supported by evidence summary and tables. The Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation and National Health and Medical Research Council processes provided a systematic and transparent process to review and assess the literature, resulting in a guideline that is relevant to the management of bronchiolitis in the Australasian setting. CONCLUSION: This is the first robust Australasian acute paediatric guideline and provides clear guidance for the management of the vast majority of patients seen in Australasian emergency departments and general paediatric wards with bronchiolitis.

Bronchiolitis is the most common reason for infants to be hospitalised. Over the past decade, the use of high-flow nasal cannulae (HFNC) therapy has increased markedly and it is now utilised not only in the intensive care unit setting but in general paediatric wards and emergency departments. The aim of this systematic review was to summarise and critique the current evidence-base for the use of HFNC in infants with bronchiolitis. We searched Ovid Medline, OvidEmbase, PubMed, Cinahl, Cochrane Library, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials for systematic reviews and randomised controlled trials of HFNC therapy in infants with bronchiolitis from 1 January 2000 to 27 June 2018. We identified four randomised controlled trials (n = 1891) of HFNC in infants with bronchiolitis: three of these studies involved infants treated in emergency departments and inpatient paediatric wards in Spain, Australia and New Zealand, and one study involved infants treated in paediatric intensive care units in France. The findings of this review suggest that HFNC should be used as a rescue treatment for hypoxaemic infants who have not responded to standard sub nasal oxygen therapy. The use of HFNC for work of breathing in the absence of hypoxaemia, and severe disease, is not currently supported by the evidence, and should only be considered in the context of an appropriate research trial.

Introduction Pneumonia is the leading cause of childhood morbidity and mortality globally. Introduction of the conjugate Haemophilus influenzae B and multivalent pneumococcal vaccines in developed countries including Australia has significantly reduced the overall burden of bacterial pneumonia. With the availability of molecular diagnostics, viruses are frequently detected in children with pneumonia either as primary pathogens or predispose to secondary bacterial infection. Many respiratory pathogens that are known to cause pneumonia are also identified in asymptomatic children, so the true contribution of these pathogens to childhood community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) remains unclear. Since the introduction of pneumococcal vaccines, very few comprehensive studies from developed countries have attempted to determine the bacterial and viral aetiology of pneumonia. We aim to determine the contribution of bacteria and viruses to childhood CAP to inform further development of effective diagnosis, treatment and preventive strategies. Methods and analysis We are conducting a prospective case-control study (PneumoWA) where cases are children with radiologically confirmed pneumonia admitted to Princess Margaret Hospital for Children (PMH) and controls are healthy children identified from PMH outpatient clinics and from local community immunisation clinics. The case-control ratio is 1:1 with 250 children to be recruited in each arm. Nasopharyngeal swabs are collected from both cases and controls to detect the presence of viruses and bacteria by PCR; pathogen load will be assessed by quantitative PCR. The prevalence of pathogens detected in cases and controls will be compared, the OR of detection and population attributable fraction to CAP for each pathogen will be determined; relationships between pathogen load and disease status and severity will be explored. Ethics and dissemination This study has been approved by the human research ethics committees of PMH, Perth, Austral

AIM: Penetrating head injuries (pHIs) are associated with high morbidity and mortality. Data on pHIs in children outside North America are limited. We describe the mechanism of injuries, neuroimaging findings, neurosurgery and mortality for pHIs in Australia and New Zealand. METHODS: This was a planned secondary analysis of a prospective observational study of children <18 years who presented with a head injury of any severity at any of 10 predominantly paediatric Australian/New Zealand emergency departments (EDs) between 2011 and 2014. We reviewed all cases where clinicians had clinically suspected pHI as well as all cases of clinically important traumatic brain injuries (death, neurosurgery, intubation >24 h, admission >2 days and abnormal computed tomography). RESULTS: Of 20 137 evaluable patients with a head injury, 21 (0.1%) were identified to have sustained a pHI. All injuries were of non-intentional nature, and there were no gunshot wounds. The mechanisms of injuries varied from falls, animal attack, motor vehicle crashes and impact with objects. Mean Glasgow Coma Scale on ED arrival was 10; 10 (48%) had a history of loss of consciousness, and 7 (33%) children were intubated pre-hospital or in the ED. Fourteen (67%) children underwent neurosurgery, two (10%) craniofacial surgery, and five (24%) were treated conservatively; four (19%) patients died. CONCLUSIONS: Paediatric pHIs are very rare in EDs in Australia and New Zealand but are associated with high morbidity and mortality. The absence of firearm-related injuries compared to North America is striking and may reflect Australian and New Zealand firearm regulations.

BACKGROUND: Bronchiolitis is the most common reason for admission to hospital for infants less than one year of age. Although management is well defined, there is substantial variation in practice, with infants receiving ineffective therapies or management. This study will test the effectiveness of tailored, theory informed knowledge translation (KT) interventions to decrease the use of five clinical therapies or management processes known to be of no benefit, compared to usual dissemination practices in infants with bronchiolitis. The primary objective is to establish whether the KT interventions are effective in increasing compliance to five evidence based recommendations in the first 24 h following presentation to hospital. The five recommendations are that infants do not receive; salbutamol, antibiotics, glucocorticoids, adrenaline, or a chest x-ray. METHODS/DESIGN: This study is designed as a cluster randomised controlled trial. We will recruit 24 hospitals in Australia and New Zealand, stratified by country and provision of tertiary or secondary paediatric care. Hospitals will be randomised to either control or intervention groups. Control hospitals will receive a copy of the recent Australasian Bronchiolitis Guideline. Intervention hospitals will receive KT interventions informed by a qualitative analysis of factors influencing clinician care of infants with bronchiolitis. Key interventions include, local stakeholder meetings, identifying medical and nursing clinical leads in both emergency departments and paediatric inpatient areas who will attend a single education train-the-trainer day to then deliver standardised staff education with the training materials provided and coordinate audit and feedback reports locally over the study period. Data will be extracted retrospectively for three years prior to the study intervention year, and for seven months of the study intervention year bronchiolitis season following intervention delivery to determine compliance

BACKGROUND: Bronchiolitis is the commonest respiratory infection in children less than 12 months and cause of hospitalisation in infants under 6 months of age in Australasia. Unfortunately there is substantial variation in management, despite high levels of supporting evidence. This paper reports on the process, strengths and challenges of the hybrid approach used to develop the first Australasian management guideline relevant to the local population. METHOD: An adaption of the nine steps recommended by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) and the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology were utilised. Following establishment of the Guideline Development Committee (GDC), we identified the population, intervention, comparator, outcomes and time of interest (PICOt) questions, undertook a systematic literature search and graded the evidence and recommendations using the NHMRC and GRADE processes. Using Nominal Group Techniques (NGT), consensus was sought in formulating the clinical practice recommendations and practice points. Key health professional bodies were consulted to ensure relevance in the Australasian emergency and ward settings. RESULTS: From 33 PICOT questions, clinical recommendations for practice that were deemed relevant to the Australasian population were identified. Specific considerations for the management of Australian and New Zealand indigenous infants in relation to the use of azithromycin and risk factors for more serious illness are included. Using NGT, consensus demonstrated by a median Likert score > 8 for all recommendations was achieved. The guideline presents clinical guidance, followed by the key recommendations and evidence review behind each recommendation. CONCLUSION: Developing evidence-based clinical guidelines is a complex process with considerable challenges. Challenges included having committee members located over two countries and five time zones, large volume of li

BACKGROUND: Clinical decision rules (CDRs) aid in the management of children with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Recently, the Scandinavian Neurotrauma Committee (SNC) has published practical, evidence-based guidelines for children with Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) scores of 9-15. This study aims to validate these guidelines and to compare them with other CDRs. METHODS: A large prospective cohort of children (< 18 years) with TBI of all severities, from ten Australian and New Zealand hospitals, was used to assess the SNC guidelines. Firstly, a validation study was performed according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria of the SNC guideline. Secondly, we compared the accuracy of SNC, CATCH, CHALICE and PECARN CDRs in patients with GCS 13-15 only. Diagnostic accuracy was calculated for outcome measures of need for neurosurgery, clinically important TBI (ciTBI) and brain injury on CT. RESULTS: The SNC guideline could be applied to 19,007/20,137 of patients (94.4%) in the validation process. The frequency of ciTBI decreased significantly with stratification by decreasing risk according to the SNC guideline. Sensitivities for the detection of neurosurgery, ciTBI and brain injury on CT were 100.0% (95% CI 89.1-100.0; 32/32), 97.8% (94.5-99.4; 179/183) and 95% (95% CI 91.6-97.2; 262/276), respectively, with a CT/admission rate of 42% (mandatory CT rate of 5%, 18% CT or admission and 19% only admission). Four patients with ciTBI were missed; none needed specific intervention. In the homogenous comparison cohort of 18,913 children, the SNC guideline performed similar to the PECARN CDR, when compared with the other CDRs. CONCLUSION: The SNC guideline showed a high accuracy in a large external validation cohort and compares well with published CDRs for the management of paediatric TBI.

Background: Bell's palsy or acute idiopathic lower motor neurone facial paralysis is characterized by sudden onset paralysis or weakness of the muscles to one side of the face controlled by the facial nerve. While there is high level evidence in adults demonstrating an improvement in the rate of complete recovery of facial nerve function when treated with steroids compared with placebo, similar high level studies on the use of steroids in Bell's palsy in children are not available. The aim of this study is to assess the utility of steroids in Bell's palsy in children in a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Methods/Design: We are conducting a randomised, triple-blinded, placebo controlled trial of the use of prednisolone to improve recovery from Bell's palsy at 1 month. Study sites are 10 hospitals within the Australian and New Zealand PREDICT (Paediatric Research in Emergency Departments International Collaborative) research network. 540 participants will be enrolled. To be eligible patients need to be aged 6 months to < 18 years and present within 72 hours of onset of clinician diagnosed Bell's palsy to one of the participating hospital emergency departments. Patients will be excluded in case of current use of or contraindications to steroids or if there is an alternative diagnosis. Participants will receive either prednisolone 1 mg/kg/day to a maximum of 50 mg/day or taste matched placebo for 10 days. The primary outcome is complete recovery by House-Brackmann scale at 1 month. Secondary outcomes include assessment of recovery using the Sunnybrook scale, the emotional and functional wellbeing of the participants using the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory and Child Health Utility 9D Scale, pain using Faces Pain Scale Revised or visual analogue scales, synkinesis using a synkinesis assessment questionnaire and health utilisation costs at 1, 3 and 6 months. Participants will be tracked to 12 months if not recovered earlier. Data analysis will be by intention to

AIM: The aetiology and clinical course of Bell's palsy may be different in paediatric and adult patients. There is no randomised placebo controlled trial (RCT) to show effectiveness of prednisolone for Bell's palsy in children. The aim of the study was to assess current practice in paediatric Bell's palsy in Australia and New Zealand Emergency Departments (ED) and determine the feasibility of conducting a multicentre RCT within the Paediatric Research in Emergency Departments International Collaborative (PREDICT). METHODS: A retrospective analysis of ED medical records of children less than 18 years diagnosed with Bell's palsy between 1 January, 2012 and 31 December, 2013 was performed. Potential participants were identified from ED information systems using Bell's palsy related search terms. Repeat presentations during the same illness were excluded but relapses were not. Data on presentation, diagnosis and management were entered into an online data base (REDCap). RESULTS: Three hundred and twenty-three presentations were included from 14 PREDICT sites. Mean age at presentation was 9.0 (SD 5.0) years with 184 (57.0%) females. Most (238, 73.7%) presented to ED within 72 h of symptoms, 168 (52.0%) had seen a doctor prior. In ED, 218 (67.5%) were treated with steroids. Prednisolone was usually prescribed for 9 days at around 1 mg/kg/day, with tapering in 35.7%. CONCLUSION: Treatment of Bell's palsy in children presenting to Australasian EDs is varied. Prednisolone is commonly used in Australasian EDs, despite lack of high-level paediatric evidence. The study findings confirm the feasibility of an RCT of prednisolone for Bell's palsy in children.

Introduction Using clotting factors (fresh frozen plasma and/or cryoprecipitate) to treat snake venom-induced consumptive coagulopathy (VICC) is controversial. We aimed to determine if factor replacement after antivenom is associated with an earlier return of coagulation function.Methods We retrospectively analysed VICC cases due to brown snake (genus Pseudonaja), tiger snake (Notechis, Tropidechis, and Hoplocephalus), and taipan (Oxyuranus) envenoming. Recovery of international normalized ratio (INR)/prothrombin time (PT) was compared between patients who did not receive factor replacement and those who did, and between patients who received factor replacement ≤ 4 h of commencing antivenom and those who received factor replacement later or not at all.Results There was no significant difference between cases receiving clotting factors and cases that did not, however in 21 cases having factor replacement within 4 h, the median time to coagulation recovery was 4.6 h (interquartile range [IQR] 3.5–8.8), versus 9.5 h (IQR 7.3–13) in 106 cases who had clotting factors later or not at all (P < 0.001). No serious adverse effects attributed to clotting factors were recorded. Recovery by 6 h after starting antivenom was also more likely in those who were younger, in tiger snake envenoming, and where the interval between bite and starting antivenom was longer. The initial dose of antivenom did not appear to influence the likelihood of recovery at 6 h.Conclusion Early factor replacement after antivenom is associated with earlier improvement of coagulation function. Randomised controlled clinical trials to determine the efficacy and safety of factor replacement for VICC after venom neutralisation are required.