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Background and aims: In oil palm, similar fertilization treatments can result in leaflet potassium and magnesium concentrations that vary significantly from one progeny to another. This hinders the development of standardized fertilizer recommendations for this crop, as they are usually calculated based on optimum leaflet nutrient concentrations. Methods: Four high-yielding oil palm progenies with contrasting leaflet K and Mg concentrations (C1, C2, and C3 of Deli x La Mé origin and C4 of Deli x Yangambi origin) were treated with combinations of three levels of KCl and MgSO4, in a completely randomized split-plot factorial design with six replicates, where progenies were a sub-factor. Results: For a given level of KCl or MgSO4, different leaflet K and Mg concentrations were found between progenies (p

Un site de 360 hectares apte à la culture du cocotier a été identifié et sélectionné au Sud du village de Dokpodon, sous-préfecture d'Ebounou en Côte d'Ivoire. C'est une zone marécageuse à proximité de la côte Les négociations sont en cours pour obtenir l'assentiment des propriétaires terriens à céder un bail d'exploitation pour une cocoteraie agro-industrielle. L'obtention d'un certificat foncier légal est en cours. Trois opérations demandant un investissement lourd sont en préparation, le démarrage de l'exécution de chacune d'entre elles étant conditionné à l'obtention du certificat foncier. Premièrement, une étude d'impact environnemental et social qui sera confiée au bureau d'études Enval. Deuxièmement, un chantier de préparation du terrain qui sera confié à l'entreprise Mian Génie Civil. Troisièmement, l'installation d'une pépinière et la commande de noix de semences, le fournisseur principal étant le CNRA de la station Marc Delorme et l'OPRI au Ghana pour la commande de noix d'hybrides NVS x GVT. Si tout se passe comme prévu (c'est-à-dire si le certificat foncier est obtenu avant la fin de l'année 2022), les travaux pourront commencer au début de la prochaine grand saison sèche et les premiers plants de cocotier pourront être plants au second semestre 2023.

Light interception (photosynthetically active radiation, PAR) experiments in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) plantations are scarce and often performed decennia ago, in Southeast Asia and without a clear methodology. This is a great opportunity for research with recent planting material in West-African growing conditions. Therefore a light inter-ception experiment was performed in Nigeria. The first objective of this study was to put forward a recommendation regarding PAR interception assessment under oil palm cano-pies. Therefore a fixed and mobile PAR interception sampling method were compared. The second objective was to reveal PAR interception distribution under an oil palm canopy. In this study, PAR interception was monitored in oil palm plots of five di erent planting den-sities (128, 143, 160, 180 and 205 palms ha−1), eleven years after oil palm planting. During the fixed sampling, PAR was measured on sixteen equidistant locations below canopy with a quantum sensor (QS5 Quantum Sensor, Delta-T Devices). During mobile sampling, mea-surements were carried out by walking along two regular paths while holding the quantum sensor by hand. PAR above canopy was measured simultaneously during sampling below canopy. This study found no significant differences between the fixed and mobile PAR interception sampling methods (p > 0.99), and this in the five different planting densities. Furthermore it was discovered that four regular fixed sampling locations below an oil palm canopy are suÿcient for an exact assessment of PAR interception. This study showed also that PAR interception was randomly distributed under the canopy without a decreasing trend of PAR interception away from the oil palm trunk. Finally, there was no significant difference in PAR interception due to the shifting position of the sun between 10 a. m. and 2 p. m. (p > 0.78). It is recommended to assess PAR interception with a fixed sampling method considering its ease, although data from both mobile and fixed methods are com-parable. The standardisation of the fixed PAR interception method is easier due to the lower probability of human error compared to the mobile PAR interception method.

With a yield potential of more than 8 tons of oil per hectare the African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is the most productive oil crop in the world. Since 2006, oil palm is the major global source of vegetable oil and production is expected to continuously increase by at least 2 % per year until 2050 (Byerlee et al., 2017). Oil palm cultivation is limited to the humid tropics where it is one of the most profitable land-uses despite the large investment costs of plantation establishment. Fertilisation represents a major yield-impacting factor but is also the most costly input in the annual running cost of an oil palm plantation. As a perennial crop with a typical life-cycle of 25 years and a physiological lag effect of up to 3 years, it is essential to consistently optimise the fertilisation in the pursuit of high yields and greater sustainability. This paper presents the results from a long-term factorial fertiliser trial in Nigeria com-prising of 4 levels of potassium, 2 levels of magnesium and 2 levels of phosphor. The field was planted in 1997 with standard planting material for the region; the fertilisation protocol started in 2000 when the trees reached maturity. After 17 years of continuous implementation, a clear production response for K is observed which allows calculation of the economically optimal dosage. There are no significant effects from Mg and P, however. In addition, as a final conclusive study, the total standing biomass and its nutrient contents were also evaluated in 2018 and results presented.

The African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is the highest yielding oil crop and the major source of vegetable oil worldwide. As a perennial crop with a typical life cycle of 25 years, establishment costs are high but potential yields of up to 8 tons of oil per hectare can be achieved under favourable environments and with best agricultural practices making it one of the most profitable land-uses in the humid tropics. Due to the radial symmetry of the foliage and their fasciculate root system, oil palms are typically planted in an equilateral triangle design. Spacing between palms de-termines planting density, a major contributor to oil yield. With a spacing that is too large, resources such as incident radiation are underutilised; on the other hand, too low a spacing excessive competition between palms will have a depressive effect on yield. As leaf mass and span increase over the first 12 years after planting, optimum density decreases with age. As a result of all these issues, the optimum planting density is the one that will achieve the highest cumulative yield over the 25 years cropping cycle. This study presents the results from a 12 year old spacing trial in Nigeria. The highest cumulative yields per palm are recorded for the lowest density but the highest cu-mulative yield per hectare are still observed on the higher densities. However, the gap between both is shrinking with time as the competition for incident radiation in-creasingly affects the higher densities. While optimum density for cumulative yield at 12 years after planting is still 190 palms ha-1, extrapolation and simulation indicate an optimum between 143 and 160 palms ha-1over the entire cycle, corresponding to a spacing of 8.5 to 9 m.

Today Indonesia is contributing to more than half of the global palm oil production, with ap-proximately 34.5 million tons produced in 2016. This production has been projected to in-crease to 50 Million tons by 2025. To reach this level of production and still maintain its committed sustainability standards, Indonesia will have to address a triple challenge: protect-ing high conservation areas, such as primary forest and peatland; closing the yield gap be-tween smallholders and agro-industries; and reducing the environmental impact of existing oil palm plantations. In this context, we chose to focus on the third challenge and investigated the opportunity of composting palm oil mill by-products to mitigate the environmental impact of palm oil production. We studied the composting process in palm oil plantations and analyzed the results from waste management, agronomic and environmental perspectives. We conducted experimental co-composting of empty fruit bunches (EFB) and pre-digested palm oil mill effluents (POME). We studied the effect of the ratio of POME to EFB and the turning frequency of the compost using a split-plot experimental design comprising 24 com-post heaps, in a covered composting platform on a concrete floor. The composting process lasted 60 days, during which the compost piles were regularly turned and sprayed with POME. We found that the biological degradation composting process reduced the dry weight of EFB by 45%. It also led to the evaporation of 60% of the water contained in POME and the EFB, thereby considerably reducing the amount of waste that comes out of the palm oil mill. In terms of recycling efficiency, a recovery rate close to 100% was achieved for K, P and Mg. We also observed loss of Nitrogen of about 25-30% during the composting process. We found that a high POME to EFB ratio (3m3/ton EFB) increased moisture above optimal water content and reduced free air space within the compost piles. Adding too much POME to the EFB also increased the quantity of leachate from the compost pile and washed away Po-tassium, the most important nutrient found in the palm oil mill compost. The dose of POME added to compost piles should be adjusted according to the fermentation phase and recycling all leachate is of paramount importance to preserve compost quality. We estimated that the composting process can effectively recycle about 0.8 to 1.4 m3 of POME per ton of EFB in 60 days. This process is facilitated by turning the compost pile, to regulate the oxygen content for optimal aerobic digestion of the compost material. From an agronomical perspective, the compost was very valuable for fertilizing the oil palm (N: 1.6%; P:0.25%; K: 4.5%; Mg: 0.45%). Our results confirm that a dose of compost of 60-90 kg per palm per year could replace mineral fertilizers in mature plantations. Compost from the mill by-products could cover about 30% of the oil palm plantations' fertilizer needs, and up to 40% if the composting process is optimized to limit nitrogen loss. In these conditions, the palm oil mill compost would be highly profitable given the current prices of fertilizers. We tested the palm oil mill compost as a fertilizer in a nursery, which proved to be a good substitute for mineral fertilizers at a rate of 9 kg/palm. In this nursery trial, compost was found to have improved the soil quality (pH, CEC, exchangeable nutrients) compared to min-eral fertilizers and raw EFB. The capacity of compost to improve soil quality was consistent over two contrasted soil types (Podzol and Alluvial Clay). We also conducted field applica-tion trials in areas prone to Oryctes sp. attacks. Results after five months of observation showed that composted EFB are less attractive for Oryctes than fresh EFB. From an environmental perspective, composting has several benefits. The reduction of the amount of waste through biological activity means that less transportation is necessary for field application (60% reduction) as against fresh EFB. The POME treated through the aero-bic process of composting prevents the negative impacts of the pond treatment, such as GHG emissions to the atmosphere. An efficient nutrient recycling through composting would sig-nificantly reduce the amount of imported inorganic fertilizers and all the negative impacts resulting from their use. Compost application improves soil quality and can store additional carbon in soils. For young palms replanted in Oryctes-infested areas, compost can reduce the need to use insecticide as compared to EFB.

Typically, Ghanaian oil palm plantations rest on an undulating topography. There is little information on how topography impacts on oil palm yields and growth. A study was conducted to evaluate this relationship in a commercial oil palm plantation located in the Kwaebibirem District of the Eastern Region of Ghana. The conditions under which oil palm is cultivated can be considered marginal because of inadequate mean annual rainfall (< 2000 mm) coupled with an uneven distribution. Also there is about 5 months of dry season coinciding with sometimes severe harmattan which can last for about 3 months. Soils here are generally not fertile, especially in replanted areas. The soil-relief and pests can also have great impact on the yields of oil palm. A plot with two different topographic positions – hillside and valley bottom – was selected for this trial. Three replicates were sited at each topographic position, making 6 replicates altogether. Four muriate of potash fertiliser treatments namely, 0.25 kg, 1.5 kg, 2.75 kg and 4 kg were applied per palm per year. Yields were recorded every two weeks for 6 years (from the 4th to the 9th year after planting). Foliar analysis was also conducted annually to monitor the leaf mineral nutrient levels. Results showed that average yield for the valley bottom/lowland was double that of the yield obtained from the hillside/upland. Hence, productivity of oil palm production can be greatly improved when cultivation is concentrated in the valley bottoms in these marginal areas. It is therefore proposed that a better land use, based on the maximisation of both the productivity of oil palm and sustainability of the whole cropping system be adopted. This land use proposal recommends a narrow band of natural vegetation around streams/rivers and creation of buffer zones to serve as catchment areas to prevent erosion and siltation. The slope will be reserved for rubber cultivation with biodiversity plots made of mostly local species occupying the summit of the hill.

Oil palm plantations have a typical economic life cycle of 25 years. As a monocotyleneous perennial crop the root system is radially distributed and shows no secondary growth but continuously expands. Oil palms are planted in an equilateral triangle design and the planting distance, determining the panting density, is fixed at the time of establishment.In time the roots from neighbouring palms will overlap and competition for soil resources can limit the growth and production of individual palms.This paper presents the results from a root analysis study carried out on an oil palm density trial in Nigeria. The biomass and characteristics of the root system in an oil palm density trial have never been thoroughly studied so this would further the understanding of how planting distance affects underground processes in oil palm plantations for a particular environment.The trial field was planted in 2005 following a Fisher block design with 6 treatments and 4 replicates. Plots consist of 72 palms of which the inner 20 are considered as useful(double row of border palms). The analysis was performed on 3 densities, D1, D3 and D6 corresponding to a planting distance of 9.5, 8.5 and 7.5 m and planting densities of 128, 160 and 205 palms/hectare respectively. A simplified voronoi method was used for the root analysis on one palm per plot. The voronoi volume was divided in 4 or 5 zones and 4 horizons giving 16 or 20 sampling volumes. For each of these volumes all the roots were removed and sorted in primary, secondary, fine and dead roots. Biomass for each was determined and extrapolated to a palm and plot level. Scanned images of the roots were also taken and analysed with WinRhizo to determine the root length, surface and volume.

In mineral nutrition trial PR CP 01, the difference between the control palms (K0) and the palms receiving a high KCI rate (K2 and K3) is confirmed: for yields in terms of the average bunch weight, with significant consequences for the total bunch weight per palm, and also for the appearance of the palms in the field with some K0 plots (though not all yet) displaying typical K deficiency symptoms. In density trial PR CP 02, there is not any significant treatment effect yet due to the high scattering of the plot values, but there is clearly a downward trend for production per palm in the high densities, though not clear enough yet to have an effect on productivity. It is necessary to wait until the density effect becomes preponderant on the other variation factors, which is bound to occur as the palms become vegetatively bulkier with age. The three palms transplanted in 2010 have recovered very well. In soil amendment trial PR CP 03, the first harvesting campaign (YoP 3) confirms the preponderant effect of the blocks (block 1, with a lower organic matter content in the soil, is behind). There is also a clear difference in production between the S+E+G+ palms and the S-E-G- palms, but without one of the three treatments standing out from the other two. In young palm fertilization trial PR ES 01, the retarded growth of the unfertilized control palms is also confirmed for the bunch load at 30 months, whereas the palms receiving EFB organic fertilization alone are continuing to do as well as the palms receiving mineral fertilization. In nutrition x planting material trial PR CP 04, the upkeep and growth of the young palms planted in June 2011 are very good on the whole. The fertilizer applications in the first months after planting were delayed due to the intensity of the rainfall, but they were ultimately carried out. This experiment is being run by PalmElit. The fertilizer schedule for immature crops until YoP 4 is confirmed. For bearing palms, it is recommended again that fertilizer be applied in accordance with the true requirements of the palms, determined by the annual leaf analysis, and not as a uniform rate. Generally speaking, upkeep has considerably improved in the three estates in 2011: the circles are now very clean and, especially at Ologbo, the weed Guinea grass has been controlled by herbicide (Fusilade) leaving room for the Pueraria. At Cowan, the old palm replanting programme has begun with felling. Regular censuses will have to be carried out of Oryctes larva populations in the stems lying on the ground, so as to intervene if necessary and avoid having to plant young oil palms in an environment infested with Oryctes.

Yields in trial GH ES 02, in its ninth year after planting, have exceeded expectations, 22 tons of FFB per hectare on average, with a peak at 25 tonnes in the best treatment (compound), whereas the unfertilized control palms come last, but still manage to produce 19 tons. Trial GH ES 02 will end in June 2012 as planned, to be converted into trial GH ES 05, testing various types of fertilization after 10 years, keeping the same control. Trial GH ES 03 has also had an exceptional yield in its seventh year after planting: 19 tons of FFB per hectare on average, with the Flanamat treatment doing best at 22 tons. As planned, trial GH ES 03 will be converted into trial GH ES 06, testing 4 increasing KCI rates and using the same design after a 2-year transition period, hence the new trial will begin in April 2013. Trial GH ES 04 is still showing a dominant relief effect: the palms planted in a lowland area are growing and yielding better than those planted in an upland area. There is not any treatment effect yet, though the palms with very low fertilization have produced less than the palms receiving more fertilization in the fourth year after planting. The protocol is to be continued with increasing KCI rates. Experiment GH CP 03 has displayed poor yields in the fourth year after planting compared to the mean of trial GH ES 04, confirming that hilltops are places that cannot be recommended for oil palm. The two treatments tested, subsoiling and gypsum application, continue to have a positive effect on oil palm yields. After another two or three seasons it will be possible to calculate the economic return of these two treatments. In the Kwae Nucleus, a replanting programme has been launched, with the poisoning of 977 hectares of old palms at the end of 2011. This will be a total replanting. It is essential that the young palms be planted in an environment that is not infested by Oryctes, so it will be necessary to ensure that the old poisoned oil palms do not harbour any larvae of this pest, and take the necessary steps if larvae are found. At Okumaning, 367 hectares have been planted in 2011, but very late in the season for some of them. The nutritional status of the palms is good on the whole, notably potassium and chlorine nutrition.

Conformément à la décision prise au comité de pilotage de mai 2011, l'expérience de référence GA CP 04 : nutrition minérale des jeunes palmiers, pourra être plantée en février ou mars 2012 : nous avons identifié des terrains favorables à Bene et du matériel végétal en pépinière. De plus, un agronome ivoirien : Mr Cissé, a été recruté depuis octobre 2011. Il sera en charge de cette expérience avec responsabilité vis-àvis de Siat et du Cirad. Mais il faudra rectifier la préparation du terrain (andainage et piquetage) et améliorer les pratiques en pépinière (arrosage notamment) pour obtenir en février 2012 des plants homogènes. L'expérience ne pourra être plantée que si ces conditions sont réunies. La direction du site à Makouké et la direction générale à Libreville sont donc instamment priées de fournir les moyens nécessaires en temps voulu à Mr. Cissé. L'expérience comportera 54 parcelles élémentaires réparties en 3 blocs couvrant une surface totale de 9,44 hectares. Le dispositif statistique est un factoriel 33 subdivisé avec 3 traitements principaux : urée - rock phosphate - KCI, à 3 doses chacun : 0-1-2, x 1 subdivision: borax, à 2 doses, 0-1. Un barème de fumure des palmiers adultes est proposé pour 2012, sur la base du diagnostic foliaire de juillet 2011. Les deux éléments les plus sensibles sont : Cl et B. Pas de changement pour les palmiers immatures : même barème en attendant les résultats de l'expérience GA CP 04. Et pas de changement non plus pour les très vieux palmiers : pas de fertilisant minéral importé. En 2012, 2 nouvelles unités DF seront ajoutées à la liste dans les blocs plantés en 2009 à Makouké. Pour les blocs plantés en 2009 à Bene, la situation est particulière car il y a eu tellement de mortalité due à l'absence d'entretien qu'ils ne seront pas échantillonnés en 2012 : ou bien parce qu'ils seront totalement replantés, ou bien parce qu'ils ont pris un tel retard qu'une analyse foliaire n'apporterait rien.

The fertilizer recommendations made in October 2011 are being applied. A watch needs to be kept on the stability of EFB compost composition, as the nutrition of the palms at Rea Kaltim now largely depends on this product. A new LSU structure has been introduced in compliance with instructions; it will be operational when the next leaf samples are taken in May 2012: 544 leaf samples will be sent to CIRAD. Starting in January 2013, the fertilizers will be applied and yields will be recorded in accordance with this new structure.The three nutrition trials on mature palms proposed in October 2011 were effectively launched in January 2012 with yield recording. The protocol is being properly followed. Some soil samples were taken in April 2012. The first leaf samples will be taken in May 2012, followed by the first protocol fertilizer application in June 2012. The first annual yield recap will take place at the end of December 2012. Land for two new trials, RK CP 02 (optimization of planting density) and RK CP 03 (optimization of immature palm fertilization) has been identified in the new KMS concession currently being cleared. These two trials are due to be planted in September 2012, with a batch of plants currently growing under good upkeep conditions in nursery B at Satria. Some particular points were raised, such as the use of palm kernel cake, a mill by-product, replanting of the oldest palms, and setting up new experiments.

Through drainage and nitrogen (N) fertilization, oil palm plantation on peatlands affect emission of the main greenhouse gases (GHG) - carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Oil palm plantations on peat can also remove CO2 from the atmosphere via photosynthesis, but the carbon not stored in the biomass or in the peat is returned back to the atmosphere as CO2. Anaerobic conditions typical for peat soils are highly favorable for the production of CH4 and N2O. This study investigated the short-term effect of N fertilization on CO2- CH4 and N2O emissions from a deep peat soil (~ 8 m) planted with young oil palms (1 year) at a density of 148 palm ha-1 in Bakrie Sumatera Plantation, Jambi. The measurements were conducted in September - October 2010 in an N fertilizer trial with 3 doses of N fertilizer: 0 g urea palm-1 (N0), 200 g urea palm-1 i.e. 14 kg N ha-1 (N1), and 400 g urea palm-1 i.e. 28 kg N ha-1 (N2). The fluxes of gas from the soil surface were measured by using the closed-chamber method. CO2 was analyzed using an Infra Red Gas Analyzer (IRGA) while N2O and CH4 were analyzed by gas chromatography. Results show a short-term increase in emissions of CO2 and CH4 following urea application. After 10 days the emissions were back to normal. The cumulative difference between N1 and N0 and between N2 and N0 was 0.9 Mg C-CO2 ha-1 and 1.4 Mg C-CO2 ha-1 respectively for CO2 emissions, 0.17 kg C-CH4 ha-1 and 0.25 kg C-CH4 ha-1 respectively for CH4 emissions. The same cumulative differences for N2O emissions were 2 and 8 kg N-N2O ha-1, respectively. N2O, CO2 and CH4 were 73, 27 and less than 1%, respectively of net greenhouse forcing due to a single N fertilization event.

Le potentiel de production des palmiers plantés depuis 2006 est bon, mais il y a en ce moment un grave déficit d'entretien des palmiers immatures qui menace leur rendement futur. Ce manque d'entretien a plusieurs causes: accessibilité réduite aux parcelles les plus éloignées en période de fortes pluies par mauvais état des pistes, manque de main d'oeuvre et mauvaise qualité d'une partie de la main d'oeuvre et de l'encadrement existant.A court terme, il faut affecter tous les moyens disponibles à cette tâche urgente de réhabilitation de l'entretien des parcelles de jeunes palmiers, même s'il le faut au détriment des vieux palmiers. A plus long terme, ces deux questions cruciales de l'état des pistes et de la gestion du personnel de plantation doivent être réglées par Siat-Gabon, faute de quoi il sera impossible de tenir le rythme de 500 hectares de nouvelles plantations par an.en assurant un entretien décent des jeunes palmiers après planting. Une structure de la plantation en unités DF sera mise en place au premier semestre 2011 avec première série d'échantillonnage foliaire en juin 2011. Un barème de fumure provisoire pour palmiers immatures a été établi. Deux expériences sont envisagées, l'une en nutrition minérale (réponse des jeunes palmiers aux éléments nutritifs N, P et K avec subdivision B) et l'autre en technique de culture (test de l'effet du sous-solage). Mais ces expériences ne pourront démarrer que si Siat-Gabon construit un service R&D, en commençant par en nommer un responsable.

Trial GH ES 02 has had an exceptional yield in its eighth year after planting: 20 tons of FFB per hectare on average, with the first signs (though not yet significant) of the unfertilized control palms falling behind. A final fertilizer application under the protocol will be carried out in May 2011 (the same rate on the 5 fertilized treatments), a final leaf analysis will be undertaken in November 2011 and the trial will be halted in June 2012, at 10 years. Trial GH ES 03 has also had an exceptional yield in its sixth year after planting: 17 tons of FFB per hectare on average, with the Flanamat treatment doing best. Given that GOPDC will no longer be using Flanamat or Sulpomag, this trial will be converted to test increasing KCI rates, after a transitional period of 2 years in which the leaf K and CI contents will be homogenized. Trial GH ES 04 is still showing a'dominant relief effect: the palms planted in a lowland area are growing better than those planted in an upland area. There are the beginnings of a treatment effect (increasing Flanamat rates) on growth. Yield recording began in January 2010. Given that GOPDC will no longer be using Flanamat, it is KCI fertilizer that will be applied on this trial starting in 2011, keeping the same protocol and increasing rates. Experiment GH CP 03 is confirming a repeatable dominant subsoiling effect, and secondarily a gypsum application effect. Harvesting began in April 2010. In the Kwae Nucleus, nothing was planted in 2010. The palms are in good nutritional condition, but many blocks are invaded by Panicum. At Okumaning, 200 hectares were planted but subsequently pulled out in 2010, 500 hectares are scheduled for 2011. The palms are in good nutritional condition, but are also suffering from re-infestation by weeds. GOPDC has changed its policy with regard to the Outgrowers, with closure of the collection centres and payment for bunches delivered to the mill at a price supposed to cover transport costs. Fertilizers are no longer supplied either. Under these conditions, our involvement is no longer justified. For fertilization in 2011, it is proposed that the 15-15-15 compound fertilizer schedule be continued on young crops, whereas KCI will be applied again to the mature palms, as GOPDC no longer produces organic oil. A KCI schedule is proposed, based on the leaf K contents recorded in November 2010.