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Parkia biglobosa faces several constraints like ageing population, mortality and poor natural regeneration. To contribute to the domestication of the species and improve its resilience to drought, a study was conducted in southern Mali. Studied factors were the Provenance (North Sudanian “NS”, South Sudanian “SS”, North Guinean “NG) and Soil Moisture Conservation Technique “SMCT” (Half-moons made with Rubble Stones “H-M R”, Half-moons made with Ground “H-M G” and the Control). The average survival rate was 50% and the highest mean survival rate (78%) was observed at Diou 24 months after planting. For provenance, survival rate varied from 47% (NS and SS) to 58 % (NG) at Somasso, 18% (NG) to 28% (NS) at Zanzoni and 73% (NG) to 83% (NS) at Diou. For SMCT, survival rate ranged from 48% (H-M G and Control) to 56% (H-M R) at Somasso, 17% (Control) to 28% (H-M G) at Zanzoni and 76% (H-M G) to 82% (H-M R) at Diou. The mean height was 37 cm, 24 months planting. The highest mean height (42 cm) was observed at Somasso. A significant interaction Provenance*SMCT was observed at Zanzoni. The highest mean height (72 cm) was observed in the combination (SS*H-M G). The result of the study revealed that the use of SMCT particularly half-moon made with rubble stones could improve the resilience of P. biglobosa and renew the agroforestry parklands. This allows maintaining the biodiversity of parklands in the sudanian and sudano-guinean zones.

Parkia biglobosa offers food, medicine and income to rural populations. A study, was undertaken in three agro-climatic zones in southern Mali, to characterise P. biglobosa populations. Plots of 0.25 ha each were established in fields and fallows and adult trees in the plots were monitored. Natural regeneration was monitored in five subplots of 12.5 m x 12.5 m = 156.25 m2 each within each plot and data were collected from 2019 to 2021. Natural regeneration of P. biglobosa was found to be very weak in all sites. The mean density of seedlings varied from 11 to 24 seedlings ha-1 with a decreasing trend from 2019 to 2021. In Zanzoni, where the weakest regeneration was observed, the density varied from 0 to 8 seedlings ha-1. The highest density of seedlings was observed in Somasso in 2019 (42 seedlings ha-1) and 2020 (30 seedlings ha-1). In 2021, the highest density was observed in Diou (25 seedlings ha-1). The weakness of natural regeneration is very alarming for this tree species facing several other threats (ageing and decreasing adult tree populations, sanitary constraints, several pressures, etc.). It is therefore very important and imperative to investigate ways for regenerating the species for its sustainability and for maintaining the parklands biodiversity. Artificial regeneration (planting), could be the one and ultimate way to ensure the sustainability of P. biglobosa.

Parkia biglobosa parklands, face several constraints such as ageing, mortality and poor natural regeneration. In order to contribute to the domestication of the species, a study was conducted in southern Mali. Three climatic zones and two land use systems referred as stands were concerned. In each zone, three plots of 50 m x 50 m (0.25 ha) each, were installed in each stand. In each plot, adult P. biglobosa trees were monitored. The quantity of pods, pulp and seeds was determined each year from 2019 to 2021. The average mean yields were 23.31 kg tree-1, 5.70 kg tree-1 and 5.21 kg tree-1 for pod, seed and pulp respectively. All factors were significant regarding P. biglobosa production as well as the interaction between zone and stand. The production was higher in year 2021 (28.15 ± 31.80 kg tree-1 for pod, 7.06 ± 7.50 kg tree-1 for seed and 6.31 ± 7.28 kg tree-1 for pulp). For all products, fields in the north sudanian zone showed the highest mean yields (40.88 ± 39.87 kg tree-1 for pod, 9.03 ± 8.62 kg tree-1 for seed and 8.79 ± 9.30 kg tree-1 for pulp). The results showed that management practices have an influence on growth parameters of P. biglobosa. They appeared also to be very important in P. biglobosa fruits production. Consequently, any domestication strategy must take this fact into account.

A study was conducted in southern Mali to characterized Parkia biglobosa populations in the aim to contribute to the domestication of the species. Fields and fallows in the north sudanian, south sudanian and north guinean zones were concerned. Adult trees were marked in plots of 0.25 ha each and leaves and fruits were harvested from each tree for characterization. Petiole and laminar length, number of pairs of pinnae and leaflets, pedicel and pod length, pod wide, pod and seed weight, number of seed per pod were measured. The north guinean zone showed the highest number of pairs of pinnae and leaflets, the longest pods (23.06±9.91 cm in the fields), the highest mean seed weight (3.74±0.96 g in the fields) and the highest mean number of seeds per pod (17 ± 3 seeds in the fields). The South Sudanian zone showed the longest pedicels (3.85±1.08 cm in the fallows), the highest mean laminar length (18.02 cm) and mean petiole length (6.45 cm) in the fields but the same mean number of seeds per pod as for the north Guinean. The north Sudanian zone showed the widest (17.88±7.98 cm in the fields and 18.24±2.11 cm in the fallows) and heaviest (14.87±3.95 g in the fallows) pods. Leaf variables like the number of pairs of pinnae and leaflets seem to be influenced by the climatic gradient. The others leaf, pod and seed variables seem not to be influenced by the climatic gradient. These findings suggest that many leaf and fruit variables are controlled by endogenous factor that could be genetic. However, the manifestation of the endogenous factor seems to be influenced by factors such as environment and management practices.

The survival and growth of Adansonia digitata tall bare-roots were tested in farm fields at Bankass (Mali). Saplings were planted by involving l4 farmers. The survival rate, the diameter at the basis, the diameter at breast height and the total height were recorded at three and fifteen months after planting. The mean survival rate after three months was 98%, and it decreased to 82% after 15 months. The mean survival rate of A. digitata tall bare-roots was higher than of those planted by using container seedlings (52–59%) and short bare-roots (

A study was conducted in southern Mali to contribute to the domestication of Parkia biglobosa. Three agro climatic zones (North Sudanian “NS”, South Sudanian “SS” and North Guinean “NG”) and two stands (field and fallow) were concerned. Three plots of 0.25 ha each, were installed in each stand. Diameter at Breast Height (DBH), Total Height (TH) and Crown Diameter (CD) of adult trees were measured. The effect of agro-climatic zone on growth parameters was significant. The South and North Sudanian zones showed significantly higher means of DBH, TH and CD compared to the North Guinean zone. The mean DBH varied from 45.46 cm (NG) to 65.96 cm (NS). The mean TH varied from 10.68 m (NG) to 12.59 m (NS). The mean CD in the field stand varied from 10.50 m (NG) to 16.12 m (SS) and in fallow stand it varied from 11.21 m (SS) to 13.64 m (NS). Stand effect was not significant but the interaction zone*stand was significant. The effect of agro-climatic did not display an influence of the climatic gradient, suggesting that management practices played an important role in the growth of this species. Key words: Domestication, fallow, field, growth parameters, management practices, Parkland species.

Assisted natural regeneration approach was experimented in the Sahel region in the aim of restoring land and vegetation in accordance with the global objectives of the Great Green Wall for the Sahara and the Sahel Initiative. Two sites (Ende and Soula Kanda) located in the district of Bankass in the centre of Mali were concerned by this study. Assisted shoots and non-assisted shoots of Guiera senegalensis J. F. Gmel. were compared at Soula Kanda, while at Ende, only assisted shoots were monitored so that to assess the impact of this approach on the survival and the growth of the shoots of this species. The height, the diameter at the basis and the diameter at 1.30 m above the ground were measured from 2015 to 2017 at Ende and from 2016 to 2017 at Soula Kanda in November/December each year. For each treatment, thirty shoots were monitored and data were analysed using the software SYSTAT9 FOR WINDOWS. At Ende, the survival rate was 93%. At Soula Kanda, the survival rate of assisted shoots was 97% against 73% for the control. At Ende as well as at Soula Kanda, dead shoots were cut by farmers. The current annual increments at Ende were 44 cm year−1 for height and 1.27 cm year−1 for the diameter at 1.30 m above the ground. At Soula Kanda, the current annual increment for height was the same for the two treatments (20 cm year−1).

Parkia biglobosa, a multi-purposes species offers food, medicine and income to rural populations. This species is facing several constraints mainly aged populations, weak natural regeneration, and reduction of tree densities. A study, was undertaken in three sites from three agro-climatic zones according to the north-south climatic gradient in southern Mali, to assess dendrometric characteristics of Parkia biglobosa trees. Permanent plots of 0.25 ha each were installed in fields and fallows with three replications in each stand within each site. Adult trees in the plots were monitored, measured and also assessed for sanitary constraints. Several sanitary constraints were encountered and classified into six categories (from attacks on trunks and gross branches to damages on fruits and general attacks, infestations and damages due to wood-boring insects, human beings and other abiotic factors). Damages like those with symptoms of dieback or staghead disease pose a serious threat for production, productivity and survival of the species. Concrete actions are necessary like sanitary diagnostic at the level of the distribution area of the species in Mali, followed by identifying real cause of damages and seeking for appropriate solutions, sensitizing and training farmers, implementing a national program of regeneration of the species by planting and/or by promoting Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR) approach.

To understand how various factors influence phenological patterns like fruit production and the extent of phenological variability as survival strategy in different environments, fruit production of shea trees was studied in different agroclimatic zones (North Sudanian, South Sudanian and North Guinean) in Mali. Three sites were selected for this study and in each site; two stands (field and fallow) were concerned. For each stand, three “land use history or land management" i.e. new fields/fallows (1-5 years), medium (6-10 years) and old (10 years) were considered and permanent plots of 0.25 ha were established. 60 adult shea trees (DBH) ? 10 cm) were selected by site and monitored for fruit production assessment. The nested analysis of variance on the yield showed a significant site effect and significant effect of land use history within stand. However, stand effect within site was not significant. Factors like site and land management (land use history) appear to be determinant for fruit production of V. paradoxa. The site of Mperesso in the South Sudanian zone showed the highest fruit mean yield (11 kg/tree), significantly higher than the fruit mean yield observed at Daelan (7 kg/tree) in the North Sudanian zone and that observed at Nafégué (6 kg/tree) in the North Guinean zone. For field stand, old fields showed highest mean yield in all sites. For fallow stand, old fallows showed the lowest mean yield in most of cases. Different pattern was observed between field and fallow stands regarding the effect of land management. More fields are aged, more they influence positively fruit production whereas more fallows are aged, and more they influence negatively fruit production. This study highlighted the importance of land management practices and therefore, any domestication program to be successful should consider the potential effect of management practices.

Shea trees identified for agronomical performances were compared through leaf and fruit characteristics. Seventy adult trees were selected using purposive sampling from seven sites along a south-north climatic gradient covering four agro-climatic zones. The effects of two factors (type of performance and site) on leaf and fruit parameters were investigated. Results showed significant effect of the type of the performance as shea trees performant for pulp production had longer petiole and laminar, wider laminar basis and top and had longer, wider and heavier fruits with more abundant pulp as compared to those performant for butter production. The factor site was found significant for all leaf and fruits parameters but the effect of climatic gradient was rare. The leaves in Siby and Kaniko had the longest laminar and the widest laminar basis, but those in Kaniko and Noumoudama had the widest laminar as compared to all other sites. The leaves in Noumoudama had the shortest petiole as compared to the rest. The leaves in Nampossela, Zanzoni, Solosso and Noumoudama had the widest laminar top as compared to those of Kaniko, Siby and Fougatie. The longest fruits were observed at Nampossela, while the widest and heaviest fruits as well as the most abundant pulp were observed at Kaniko and the heaviest nuts were observed at Siby. The smallest and slightest fruits were observed at Noumoudama and Solosso in more arid zones, but often, not significantly different from some sites in wettest zones regarding certain fruit parameters. This study highlighted phenotypic descriptors of agronomical performance through the leaves and the fruits of this tree species. Key words: Agronomical performance, climatic gradient, leaf and fruit characteristics, Mali, Vitellaria paradoxa.

Vitellaria paradoxa, a forest tree species plays an important role for rural populations in Mali. The kernel is rich in fat, fatty acids and tocopherols and the butter extrated from the kernel is used in many African kitchens, in pharmacology, cosmetics, local traditional medicine and as Chocolate Butter Equivalent (CBE) in chocolate industry. A consortium funded by the Europena Union has worked on several aspects of shea tree including chemical characterisation of shea butter. In Mali, one of the project partners, five sites were selected, fruits were collected from selected shea trees and sent to Montpellier for chemical analyses assessing among other variables the tocopherol content of the shea butter using liquid chromatography (HPLC). Results of this study shown that shea butter from the Dogon Plateau and the Seno Bankass is richer in tocopherols (Vitamin E) compared to other study sites. Sites were found significantly different for tocopherols content all together as well as for each type of tocopherol. The richness of shea butter from the Dogon Plateau and the Seno Bankass in tocopherols confers to it an important nutritional value for the good healf of rural populations of this zone, shea butter being the main source of fat for cooking in this area.

The morphological responses of seedlings of eight African provenances of Vitellaria paradoxa (Shea tree or Karite) to imposed draught stress were compared under nursery experimental conditions. The potted seedlings were subjected to three different watering regimes (87 days after sowing): no water stress (100% of the field capacity, C), moderate water stress (75% of C) and severe water stress (50% of C). Before the application of the stress, we observed genotypical differences in the morphological variables at the scale of leaves and of above-ground parts. The six-month water stress affected aerial growth: all provenances responded to drought by down-regulating growth (in height and in diameter), leaf number and area. Katawki provenance of Uganda performed relatively poorly, possibly of it being a nilotica subspecies, contrary to the others (paradoxa subspecies). There was a lack of correlation between climate of seeds origin, seed characteristics, seeds germination and survival rate of seedlings. The study confirmed the importance of leaf area in the vigor of the initial growth in this species. Thus, Tamale and Karaba provenances performed better than other West African provenances due to their larger leaf area, which was found to be a determining factor of relative growth in height at the seedling stage.

The Shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) is a major tree species in African agroforestry systems. Butter extracted from its nuts offers an opportunity for sustainable development in Sudanian countries and an attractive potential for the food and cosmetics industries. The purpose of this study was to develop near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) calibrations to characterize Shea nut fat profiles. Powders prepared from nuts collected from 624 trees in five African countries (Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana and Uganda) were analyzed for moisture content, fat content using solvent extraction, and fatty acid profiles using gas chromatography. Results confirmed the differences between East and West African Shea nut fat composition: eastern nuts had significantly higher fat and oleic acid contents. Near infrared reflectance spectra were recorded for each sample. Ten percent of the samples were randomly selected for validation and the remaining samples used for calibration. For each constituent, calibration equations were developed using modified partial least squares (MPLS) regression. The equation performances were evaluated using the ratio performance to deviation (RPD(p)) and R(p)(2) parameters, obtained by comparison of the validation set NIR predictions and corresponding laboratory values. Moisture (RPD(p) = 4.45; R(p)(2) = 0.95) and fat (RPD(p) = 5.6; R(p)(2) = 0.97) calibrations enabled accurate determination of these traits. NIR models for stearic (RPD(p) = 6.26; R(p)(2) = 0.98) and oleic (RPD(p) = 7.91; R(p)(2) = 0.99) acids were highly efficient and enabled sharp characterization of these two major Shea butter fatty acids. This study demonstrated the ability of near-infrared spectroscopy for high-throughput phenotyping of Shea nuts.

The impact of human practices on the phenology of flowering was assessed for an important agroforestry tree species of the Sudano-Sahelian zone: Vitellaria paradoxa. Flowering was monitored at two sites in southern Mali over 2 years. At each site, the impact of agricultural practices on flowering phenology was assessed by comparing field, fallow and forest. The site effect and agricultural practices were significant for all the monitored variables. The proportion of individuals that flowered was 89% at Koumantou and 40% at MPeresso. About 98, 95 and 75% of individuals at Koumantou and 88, 12 and 20% at MPeresso flowered in the field, fallow and forest, respectively. The mean length of flowering ranged from 69 to 81 days at Koumantou and from 45 to 108 days at MPeresso. The mean number of days for the active phase ranged from 36 to 49 days at Koumantou and from 27 to 64 days at MPeresso. Koumantou's favourable climatic conditions resulted in better flowering ability and a higher probability of abundant flowering. Field appeared to provide better conditions than fallow and forest regarding flowering ability and probability of abundant flowering. How-ever, tree diameter did not affect flowering phenology. Agricultural practices appear to have a noticeable impact on the phenology of flowering of V. paradoxa. Trees flowered abundantly in the parkland and therefore increased gene flow via pollen and/or seeds and the dynamics of genetic diversity.

Ten microsatellite loci were used to investigate the impact of human activity on the spatial and temporal genetic structure of Vitellaria paradoxa (Sapotaceae), a parkland tree species in agroforestry systems in southern Mali. Two stands (forest and fallow) and three cohorts (adults, juveniles and natural regeneration) in each stand were studied to: (i) compare their levels of genetic diversity (gene diversity, HE; allelic richness, Rs; and inbreeding, FIs); (ii) assess their genetic differentiation (FsT); and (iii) compare their levels of spatial genetic structuring. Gene diversity parameters did not vary substantially among stands or cohorts, and tests for bottleneck events were nonsignificant. The inbreeding coefficients were not significantly different from zero in most cases (FIS = -0.025 in forest and 0.045 in fallow), suggesting that the species is probably outbreeding. There was a weak decrease in FIS with age, suggesting inbreeding depression. Differentiation of stands within each cohort was weak (FST = 0.026, 0.0005, 0.010 for adults, juveniles and regeneration, respectively), suggesting extensive gene flow. Cohorts within each stand were little differentiated (FST = -0.001 and 0.001 in forest and fallow, respectively). The spatial genetic structure was more pronounced in fallow than in forest where adults showed no spatial structuring. In conclusion, despite the huge influence of human activity on the life cycle of Vitellaria paradoxa growing in parkland systems, the impact on the pattern of genetic variation at microsatellite loci appears rather limited, possibly due to the buffering effect of extensive gene flow between unmanaged and managed populations. (Resume d'auteur)

Vitellaria paradoxa is one of the major components of African parkland agroforestry systems. In order to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of this species, we isolated and characterized 14 polymorphic nuclear microsatellite loci. Primers developed to amplify these loci were used to analyse 200 individuals of a shea tree population in Mali. Loci have shown a high number of alleles ranging from four to 26, and display an observed level of heterozygosity between 0.37 and 0.85. These new very polymorphic microsatellite markers will be useful for genetic and ecological studies of V. paradoxa.

In order to study the genetic diversity and structure in the population of Vitellaria paradoxo, we characterized eight polymorphic microsatellite loci. Primers to amplify these loci were tested on 169 individual trees representing a sample of the population of shea tree in Mali. The loci were all polymorphic with a number of alleles between three to nine and with observed level of heterozygosity ranging from 0.035 to 0.507. These markers will be useful for genetic and ecological studies of this species. (Resume d'auteur)

The shea tree, Vitellaria paradoxa, is one of the most economically and culturally important indigenous tree species in the Sudano-Sahelian region. Its seeds contain a vegetable fat, internationally known as shea butter, which is widely used in edible, cosmetic and pharmaceutical sectors. Based on samples from 456 trees distributed in 17 locations across the species natural range from Senegal to Uganda, the fatty acid and tocopherol variation, and its relationship with geographic and climatic variables, was assessed in order to address the pattern and the origin of this variation across the natural range. Significant differ- ences between Western and Eastern regions for oleic, stearic acid, saturated-unsaturated acid ratio and c-tocopherol were identified that it is postulated maybe a result of genetic drift due to the evolutionary history of shea tree populations. Within regions the difference among stands was significant for most constituents; however the major part of the variation was observed among trees within stand (53-90 %). Relationships with climatic variables were not veri- fied, weakening evidence for clinal variation hypoth- eses suggested by previous studies.

We implemented a regression-based method between pairwise relatedness estimated from markers and phenotypic similarity to estimate heritability of traits related to leaf size and morphology in a wild tree population (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.: shea tree). We then compared the results with heritability estimated with a classical pedigree-based method. We tested both approaches in an agroforestry population of this tree species, a very important one and abundant in the Sudano-Sahelian zone of Africa. Twelve microsatellite loci were used to estimate pairwise relatedness after selection of estimator coefficients based on Monte Carlo simulation. The regression-based method applied to 200 individuals did not display a significant trend with physical distance between trees for relatedness as well as for actual variance of relatedness. In consequence, estimates of narrow-sense heritability of traits related to leaf size were not significant. The pedigree-based method using a progeny test with 39 families and 15 individuals per family from the same population showed high and significant estimates of narrow-sense heritability for the same traits (h2 = 0.36–0.95), demonstrating a marked genetic variation within the population. This discrepancy between methods stresses the poor performance of the molecular marker-based method. This can be explained by the absence of fine-scale structure within the agroforestry population of shea trees, other parameters being consistent with recommended values. The regression-based method does not seem well adapted to the agroforestry tree population. New experiments in tree populations and theoretical approaches are needed to evaluate the real potential of the marker-based methods.

The impact of human activities on size class distribution and spatial distribution of Vitellaria paradoxa (karite or shea butter tree) in the parklands of sub-Saharan Africa has not been reported in the literature. Two sites (Koumantou and Mperesso) in southern Mali and three treatments (cultivated field, fallow and forest) per site were involved in the present study. Results of a statistical test for random distribution showed that the spatial pattern of Vitellaria paradoxa became progressively aggregated from cultivated field to fallow and then to forest. A permanent aggregated pattern found at Koumantou was not found at Mperesso. A test of the independence of larger and smaller tree locations shows that size classes clump together at Koumantou but not at Mperesso. Results of the third test showed that in the cultivated field, auto-correlation was only observed at large scale. In the fallow the trend was towards negative correlation for both sites. In the forest, negative correlation was observed up to 20 m at Koumantou whereas at Mperesso, positive correlation was observed around 35 m and above 50 m. Site differences may be explained by the intensity of fruit production and recruitment, bound to rainfall and land use pressure. Greater regularity of the spatial pattern in cultivated field, then fallow, may be the result of human intervention.

Un essai, installe en 1989 au sud du Mali, comprend l'etude de l'effet de deux preparations manuelles du sol sur le comportement de six especes. Anogeissus leiocarpus, Prosopis africana et Khaya senegalensis se comportent bien sur des sols hydromorphes ; Parkia biglobosa, malgre une bonne croissance en hauteur, et Tamarindus indica, en depit de bons taux de survie, ont des problemes d'adaptation a ces types de sols ; Faidherbia albida n'est adapte ni aux sols argileux, ni aux terres limoneuses-argileuses de cette station. Ces especes peuvent etre plantees sur des petits potets (trous cubiques de 30 cm d'arete). Khaya senegalensis merite d'etre plante avec de larges espacements alors qu'il est recommande, pour Tamarindus indica, de recourir a des plantations a densite initiale elevee dans un objectif de bois de service.

The dynamics of the natural regeneration of Vitellaria paradoxa (karité or shea tree) was studied in southern Mali with the aim of assessing the effect of human practices of land use (forest, fallow). Different categories of regeneration were monitored during three years in forest and fallow stands. The spatial distribution, the density and the growth of the regeneration were studied and stands were compared using SAS’s GLM procedure. Time effect and the different interactions were tested using SAS’s repeated measures method. The regeneration was differently distributed in the stands. In the fallow stand it occurred across the whole area while in the forest stand it appeared as Patches Under Karité trees (PUK), Patches Under Other tree Species (PUOS) and Patches Out of any Cover (POC). The density of the regeneration was higher in the fallow stand, but the effect of stand was not significant for height growth. In the forest stand, patch effect on measured variables was weak. A significant time effect on height growth was observed and the time*patch interaction was significant also. Variations of density and growth were observed according to year, suggesting high sensitivity of shea tree natural regeneration to varying environmental conditions.

We monitored flowering, fruiting and leafing of Vitellaria paradoxa (shea tree) along the north–south gradient in Mali (West Africa), using three study sites for a period of three years. In each site, adult shea trees were marked and monitored in permanent plots of both field and fallow stands. The chronology of phenophases and their mean length as well as flowering and fruiting were assessed. Our data revealed significant variation according to site and stand. The onset of events starts earlier in the south than in the centre or north, but the period covered by events was almost the same for all sites (3 to 6 months for flowering; 5 to 6 months for fruiting; and 2 to 4 months before full leafing).Flowering and fruiting were more regular in the south, but often as high in the north, with an almost similar trend in both fields and fallows. In the centre, flowering was also high in fields as well as in fallows, while the fruiting was medium to high. We also observed variations in the mean length of phenological events in study sites and stands. Sites in the south showed the highest average length of flowering and leafing (76 days and 44 days, respectively), while the central site showed the greatest length of mean fruiting (110 days). We observed a significant site*stand interaction and noticeable variation over the years. Our study indicates that phenological events of shea tree could be influenced by several interacting biotic and abiotic factors. A future research challenge in shea phenology would be to discriminate these factors and thus help sustainable management of shea tree parklands.