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Although several studies have focused on the influence of moonlight over deer-vehicle collisions, findings have been inconsistent. This may be due to neglecting the effects of cloud cover, a major impediment to moon illumination, and circannual variation in both deer and human activity.We modeled how median cloud cover interacted with the illuminated fraction of the moon in affecting daily roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) roadkill in Slovenia (Central Europe). Data included nationwide roadkill (n = 49,259), collected between 2010 and 2019 on a mandatory basis by hunters as well-trained citizen scientists.Roadkill peaked for medium-to-high cloud cover, while decreased at nights with low or extremely high cloudiness. This pattern was more pronounced at full moon nights. However, the effects of moon illumination and cloud cover had a lower predictive potential than circannual variation.Our results suggest that moonlight could influence deer movements through compensatory foraging. However, at full moon nights collisions could then be modulated by weather conditions, affecting human movement and vehicle traffic, and likely also road crossing by roe deer.Moon illumination may indeed affect wildlife-vehicle collisions and roadkill, but its effects should be quantified as a function of cloud cover. Because collisions with roe deer, the most common road-killed large mammals in Europe, peak at nights with full moon and casted skies, and at some precise periods of the year, interactive warning signs that detect ground illumination at these periods may improve drivers’ awareness and increase their safety.

In mainland Europe, mouflon were first introduced in the 18th and 19th centuries, mainly in Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. In the early 20th century, mouflon were introduced in Croatia, while all introductions in Slovenia occurred in the 1950s and 1960s. Since the introduction, populations in both countries have remained largely stable, with occasional declines and increases in some areas. Due to several up-following introduction events, also using individuals with unknown origin, the genetic pool of the species might be very admixed; however, no genetic study has been made to date. Therefore, our aim was to: i) determine the origin of introduced mouflon in Slovenia and Croatia, ii) compare the neutral and adaptive genetic make-up of introduced populations. In genetic analyses, which were performed at neutral loci (partial fragment of mitochondrial control region, mtDNA CR) and adaptive major histocompatibility complex (MHC; DRB exon 2) using the next generation sequencing approach, we also included individuals from Germany, France (Corsica), Italy (Sardinia), and the Czech Republic. The haplotype network based on mtDNA CR showed that most analysed mouflon from Slovenia shared the same haplotypes or were closely related to mouflon from Germany and Sardinia, and a few shared the same haplotypes as most mouflon from Croatia. Croatian mouflon from all studied populations shared the same or close haplotypes with individuals from the first Croatian population established in Brijuni Island National Park (northern Adriatic Sea) in the early 20th century. Similar results for populations in both countries were revealed by MHC genes. According to the genetic data, the population origins are generally in agreement with the written historical records, although there are indications of the introduction or release of extra individuals into certain colonies where historical data is lacking. Furthermore, our findings validate that both mitochondrial and MHC genetic diversity are useful tools for investigating the paths of translocation.

European wildlife has been subjected to intensifying levels of anthropogenic impact throughout the Holocene, yet the main genetic partitioning of many species is thought to still reflect the late-Pleistocene glacial refugia. We analyzed 26,342 nuclear SNPs of 464 wild boar (Sus scrofa) across the European continent to infer demographic history and reassess the genetic consequences of natural and anthropogenic forces. We found that population fragmentation, inbreeding and recent hybridization with domestic pigs have caused the spatial genetic structure to be heterogeneous at the local scale. Underlying local anthropogenic signatures, we found a deep genetic structure in the form of an arch-shaped cline extending from the Dinaric Alps, via Southeastern Europe and the Baltic states, to Western Europe and, finally, to the genetically diverged Iberian peninsula. These findings indicate that, despite considerable anthropogenic influence, the deeper, natural continental structure is still intact. Regarding the glacial refugia, our findings show a weaker signal than generally assumed, but are nevertheless suggestive of two main recolonization routes, with important roles for Southern France and the Balkans. Our results highlight the importance of applying genomic resources and framing genetic results within a species’ demographic history and geographic distribution for a better understanding of the complex mixture of underlying processes. Nasl. z nasl. zaslona. Opis vira z dne 3. 2. 02023. Skupno št. avtorjev: 21. Bibliografija: str. 142-143.

The European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) is one of the most numerous and widespread ungulate species in Europe, which has complicated the assessment of its genetic diversity on a range-wide scale. In this study, we present the mitochondrial DNA control region (mtDNA CR) genetic diversity and population structure of roe deer in Europe based on the analyses of 3010 samples, which were described as European roe deer individuals. Our analyses revealed two main diversity hotspots, namely Eastern and Central Europe. We proposed that these hotspots result from the Siberian roe deer (C.pygargus) mtDNA introgression and the secondary contact of mtDNA clades, respectively. Significantly lower values of genetic diversity (nucleotide and haplotype diversity) were recorded in the peripheral areas of the species’ range, including the southernmost parts of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) refugial areas. Roe deer population in Europe consists of 2–3 genetic groups according to SAMOVA, and 15–16 clusters identified by GENELAND. The main driver of roe deer population structure in the eastern parts of the continent has been introgression of mtDNA of C. pygargus. Spatial genetic analyses revealed a complex structure of roe deer on a pan-European scale, which presumably results from post-glacial recolonization of the continent from various parts of a large LGM refugial area by different roe deer mtDNA clades and haplogroups. © 2022, The Author(s) under exclusive licence to Deutsche Gesellschaft für Säugetierkunde.

Genetic characterisation of wild ungulates can be a useful tool in wildlife management and in obtaining a greater understanding of their biological and ecological roles in a wider spatiotemporal context. Different ways of optimising methodologies and reducing the costs of genetic analyses using widely available bone tissues collected within regular hunting allocations were examined. Successful isolation and analysis of DNA from widely available bones can be cheap, fast and easy. In particular, this study explored the possibility of using bones for extracting high quality nuclear DNA for microsatellite analysis. The utility of applying a modified demineralisation process using two commercially available DNA isolation kits, which differ significantly in price, was evaluated. The sample sets included bones and, for comparison, muscle tissues from four wild ungulate species: chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), and Alpine ibex (Capra ibex). For the recent bones, these results confirmed that the DNA concentrations and microsatellite amplification were sufficiently high, even when using low-cost kits, after prior demineralisation. For old bones, prior demineralisation and use of a specially designed isolation kit led to a more successful extraction of DNA. Besides reducing kit-related costs, low-cost kits are much faster and therefore make genetic analysis more efficient.

Carnivores tend to exhibit a lack of (or less pronounced) genetic structure at continental scales in both a geographic and temporal sense and this can confound the identification of post-glacial colonization patterns in this group. In this study we used genome-wide data (using Genotyping-by-Sequencing (GBS)) to reconstruct the phylogeographic history of a widespread carnivore, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), by investigating broad-scale patterns of genomic variation, differentiation and admixture amongst contemporary populations in Europe. Using 15,003 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from 524 individuals allowed us to identify the importance of refugial regions for the red fox in terms of endemism (e.g. Iberia). In addition, we tested multiple post-glacial re-colonization scenarios of previously glaciated regions during the Last Glacial Maximum using an Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC) approach that were unresolved from previous studies. This allowed us to identify the role of admixture from multiple source population post-Younger Dryas in the case of Scandinavia and ancient land-bridges in the colonization of the British Isles. A natural colonization of Ireland was deemed more likely than an ancient human-mediated introduction as has previously been proposed and potentially points to an increased mammalian fauna on the island in the early post-glacial period. Using genome-wide data has allowed us to tease apart broad-scale patterns of structure and diversity in a widespread carnivore in Europe that was not evident from using more limited marker sets and provides a foundation for next-generation phylogeographic studies in other non-model species.

To provide the most comprehensive picture of species phylogeny and phylogeography of European roe deer (

Background In many mammalian species, once the permanent teeth have erupted, the only change to dentition is a gradual loss of tooth surface/height through wear. The crown of the teeth cannot be repaired once worn. When dental crown tissue has been depleted due to wear, the animal is expected to have a suboptimal body condition. We evaluated the role of tooth wear in causing a reduction of physical condition in adult roe deer females (Capreolus capreolus). Results The progressive wearing of the lower cheek teeth was assessed in a Northern Apennines (Italy) population with a new scoring scheme based on objectively described tooth characteristics (morphotypes) being either present or absent. Eviscerated body mass and mandible length, which is a good proxy for body size in roe deer, were related to the tooth wear score by the use of linear regressions. The sum of wear scores for molariform teeth correlated most strongly with body condition (i.e., eviscerated body mass/mandible length), showing the importance of the entire chewing surface for acquiring energy by food comminution, chewing, and digestion. In comparison with individuals of comparable size experiencing minor tooth wear, the body mass of those with the most advanced stage of tooth wear was decreased by 33.7%. This method was compared to the height and the hypsodonty index of the first molar, the most commonly used indices of tooth wear. The sum of molariform wear scoring scheme resulted in a more suitable index to describe the variation in body condition of roe deer. Conclusions Describing tooth wear patterns in hunted populations and monitoring at which tooth wear level (and therefore dental morphotype) an animal is no longer able to sustain its physical condition (i.e. when it begins to lose body mass) can be a useful tool for improving the management of the most widespread and abundant deer species in Europe. At the same time, such an approach can clarify the role of tooth wear as a proximate cause of senescence in ungulates.

Collisions with vehicles are a major anthropogenic cause of mortality for wildlife, with conservation and evolutionary implications. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries worldwide enforced lockdowns which importantly reduced traffic, and therefore had unprecedented consequences for global wildlife populations. We modeled how the two lockdown periods in spring and autumn 2020 influenced wildlife-vehicle collisions in Slovenia (central Europe), by comparing long-term (for the period 2010–2020) and high-quality time series data on road mortality of seven mammalian species: European roe deer (n = 53,259), red fox (n = 9,889), European badger (n = 5,170), brown hare (n = 5,050), stone marten (n = 4,267), wild boar (n = 1,188), and red deer (n = 1,088). We decomposed 2010–2019 data through autoregressive Bayesian Generalized Additive Models, and then we compared 2020 data to forecasts, aiming to estimate anomalies in number of collisions during both lockdown periods. During the spring lockdown (16 March – 30 April 2020), we observed far less collisions than in the 2010–2019 average as well as in 2020 forecasts, for roe deer and badger. In the autumnal lockdown (20 October – 31 December 2020), we observed significantly less collisions for roe deer and wild boar. Traffic reduction in both lockdown periods had a major impact on roe deer, which in autumn and spring 2020 experienced 270–330 less road-related mortality cases than expected. COVID-19 lockdown reduced traffic-related mortality for the majority of studied species. In some species, this decrease reached a magnitude of biological significance, which can have long-term repercussions on both evolution and management. Obviously, large-scale sanitary policies, imposing a reduction to human mobility, can have large-scale impacts on wildlife. As pandemics may increase in the next decades, we encourage further research exploring the consequences of their enforcement over global change and wildlife conservation and evolution.

The conservation value of transboundary management of wildlife populations in Europe, that marked end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21th century, has come under huge pressure since 2015 especially in the South-eastern ­Europe due to border fences construction in response to large influxes of refugees/migrants. The primary aim of this study was to present data on the direct impacts of the long fence on wildlife (e.g. fence-related mortality) across the Hungary–Croatia border. We collected data on fence-related animal mortality along 136km of the fence in the first 28 months after its construction. In total, 64 ungulates (38 red deer, 23 roe deer, and three wild boar) were found ­entangled in or deceased due to the razor wire fence. In addition, we present direct (photographic) evidence of newly recorded behaviour of red deer, as they gather in huge herds attempting to cross the border fence between Hungary and Croatia. Short term effect of the border fence is reflected in direct animal mortality, and as obstruction to the movement and behaviour of animals. In the case that current fences will remain or continue to expand along the northern boundary of South-eastern Europe, it is likely that fragmented wildlife populations in the region will suffer from negative effects of genetic subdivision such as loss of alleles and reduced heterozygosity that can cause important long-term damage to their vitality., Konzervatorska vrijednost prekograničnog gospodarenja populacijama divljih životinja u Europi, koja je obilježila kraj 20. i početak 21. stoljeća, našla se pod velikim pritiskom od 2015., posebice u jugoistočnoj Europi, zbog izgradnje graničnih ograda kao odgovor na velike prilive izbjeglica/migranata. Primarni je cilj ovoga rada predstaviti podatke o izravnim utjecajima ograde na divlje životinje (npr. smrtnost od ograde) preko mađarsko–hrvatske granice. Prikupili smo podatke o smrtnosti životinja vezanih uz granične ograde (ukupne dužine 136 km) u prvih 28 mjeseca poslije konstrukcije. Ukupno je pronađeno 64 dvopapkara (38 jelena običnog, 23 srne obične i tri divlje svinje) upleteno ili uginulo zbog bodljikave žice. Uz to, predstavljamo izravne (fotografske) dokaze o novo zabilježenom ponašanju jelenske divljači, okupljajući se u velika krda koja pokušavaju prijeći graničnu ogradu između Mađarske i Hrvatske. Kratkoročni učinak granične ograde ogleda se u obliku izravne smrtnosti životinja, a isto tako i kao opstrukcije kretanju i ponašanja životinja. Ako postojeće ograde ostanu ili se nastave širiti duž sjeverne granice jugoistočne Europe, vjerojatno je da će fragmentirane populacije divljih životinja u regiji patiti od negativnih učinaka genetske podjele, poput gubitka alela i smanjene heterozigotnosti, što može izazvati dugoročno značajnije štete u vitalnosti tih populacija.

Millions of wild animals are killed annually on roads worldwide. During spring 2020, the volume of road traffic was reduced globally as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic. We gathered data on wildlife-vehicle colli-sions (WVC) from Czechia, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Israel, Norway, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and for Scotland and England within the United Kingdom. In all studied countries WVC statistics tend to be dominated by large mammals (various deer species and wild boar), while information on smaller mammals as well as birds are less well recorded. The expected number of WVC for 2020 was predicted on the basis of 2015–2019 WVC time series representing expected WVC numbers under normal traffic conditions. Then, the forecasted and reported WVC data were compared. The results indicate varying levels of WVC decrease between countries during the COVID-19 related traffic flow reduction (CRTR). While no significant change was determined in Sweden, where the state-wide response to COVID-19 was the least intensive, a decrease as marked as 37.4% was identified in Estonia. The greatest WVC decrease, more than 40%, was determined during the first weeks of CRTR for Estonia, Spain, Israel, and Czechia. Measures taken during spring 2020 allowed the survival of large numbers of wild animals which would have been killed under normal traffic conditions. The significant effects of even just a few weeks of reduced traffic, help to highlight the negative impacts of roads on wildlife mortality and the need to boost global efforts of wildlife conservation, including systematic gathering of roadkill data. Wildlife-vehicle collisions Wildlife crash reporting systems Traffic flow Ungulates Mesocarnivores COVID-19 lockdown

Across its pan-European distribution, the European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) faces a wide diversity of environmental and climatic conditions, therefore, several factors, including intrinsic ones, shape life-history traits and cause significant variability in parameters of fitness. By utilizing microsatellite variations in 214 roe deer females collected throughout Slovenia, Central Europe, we determined the genetic variability and population structure of this species in the contact zone between the Alps and the Dinaric Mountains, i.e., over a wider area where data on the genetic outlook for this&mdash, the most common and widespread European wild ungulate&mdash, have been completely lacking so far. Throughout the country, we found moderate microsatellite diversity (Ho = 0.57&ndash, 0.65) in relation to the observed heterozygosity reported for other roe deer populations in Europe. Spatial differences in genetic diversity of the species in Slovenia can be explained by population history linked to varying approaches to population management and/or different connectivity among subpopulations in topographically differentiated habitats. A country-wide pattern of genetic structure is clearly defined by separation of the populations into three groups present in the following regions: (i) Southern sub-Mediterranean and Karst regions, (ii) Central Slovenia, and (iii) the Sub-Pannonian Region in the north-east. This is also confirmed by evidencing a moderate isolation by distance, especially by separating southern samples (coastal Slovenia) from others. Levels of genetic differentiation vary among populations, which can be explained by the effect of natural geographical barriers or the presence of anthropogenic barriers such as urban areas and highways. In the subset of 172 yearling females, we analyzed the influence of genetic advantage (individual heterozygosity) and other genetic data (reflected in the structuring of the population) on body mass and reproductive ability. We found evidence that genetic factors influence the body mass of roe deer yearling females (explaining altogether 18.8% of body mass variance), and the level of individual heterozygosity alone also positively affected body mass, which is in accordance with the theory that heterozygosity is commonly positively correlated with fitness in wild populations. However, we did not uncover any effect of heterozygosity on two parameters of reproductive ability (fertility and potential reproductive outcome), indicating that several other factors, especially environmental ones, have a predominant effect on the parameters of fitness in roe deer.

Poznavanje absolutne in/ali relativne številčnosti prostoživečih parkljarjev je eden pomembnejših vhodnih podatkov, ki nam omogoča njihovo učinkovito trajnostno upravljanje. V večjem delu Slovenije so prostoživeči parkljarji gospodarsko, motivacijsko in ekološko najpomembnejša skupina divjadi. V procesu njihovega upravljanja trenutno ni uveljavljenih standardnih in rutinskih metod, na podlagi katerih bi lahko zanesljivo ocenjevali absolutno in/ali relativno številčnost na vsakoletni ravni. Metod za spremljanje številčnosti populacij prostoživečih parkljarjev je veliko pri izbiri najustreznejše je treba upoštevati določene kriterije. Najpomembnejši kriteriji za izbiro metode so obravnavana vrsta parkljarjev, značilnosti habitata, velikost območja, gostota populacije, možnost kontrole in nenazadnje tudi stroški. V Sloveniji je bila za ocenjevanje številčnosti srnjadi in jelenjadi že v rabi metoda štetja kupčkov iztrebkov, poleg katere bi bila primerna tudi metoda kilometrskega indeksa. Pri divjem prašiču za najbolj zanesljive metode veljajo uporaba foto pasti, štetje na pogonih in daljinsko vzorčenje s pomočjo termovizije, pri gamsu pa štetje s tal in monitoring iz zraka. The information on absolute and/or relative abundance of wild ungulates is one of the key parameters for sustainable and efficient management. Wild ungulates are the most important and abundant group of game species in Slovenia however, there are currently no standard census methods, which would be performed on the annual basis. There are various methods for estimating wild ungulate abundance and several criteria have to be met, when selecting the most suitable one. The most important criteria that have to be taken into account are studied species, habitat characteristics, size of the studied area, population density and cost efficiency. Besides the faecal pellet group method, which has already been used in Slovenia to estimate the abundance of roe deer and red deer, a suitable method is also the kilometre index. The reliable methods for wild boar are camera traps, drive counts and distance sampling with thermovision and, for chamois, ground counts and aerial counts.

The golden jackal (Canis aureus) is expanding its range across Europe. This process includes ongoing colonization of Slovenia, which may be occurring from the Dalmatian population on the Adriatic Coast and/or the Pannonian Basin population to the east. We analysed genetic profiles from tissue samples collected in Slovenia (n=20), Dalmatia (n=21), northern (n=21) and eastern (n=7) Croatia, and Serbia (n=30) to determine local genetic diversity and the relative influence of the two potential source populations. We examined 15 microsatellite genetic markers already used in national wolf (C. lupus) genetic monitoring, and screened for possible hybrids with reference profiles from wolves and dogs (C. l. familiaris). Our results support the presence of two population clusters ; Dalmatia (n = 21) and a second cluster comprising animals sampled in and around the Panonnian Basin (n = 78). Jackals sampled in Slovenia were primarily assigned to the Pannonian population, although at least four jackals showed sign of Dalmatian ancestry. None of the profiles showed sign of (dog/wolf x jackal) hybrid ancestry. For the Dalmatian population, the average number of alleles per locus (allelic diversity ; Na) was 3.200 (SE 0.279), the observed heterozygosity (Ho) was 0.470 (SE 0.056) and unbiased expected heterozygosity (uHe) was 0.493 (0.051). For the Pannonian population, Na was 4.400 (0.434), Ho was 0.571 (SE 0.043) and uHe was 0.592 (0.038). Future investigation can help clarify whether the pattern of Pannonian-dominated immigration may be changing over time. Moreover, we recommend further study of the ecological function of jackals, their interactions with humans and domestic livestock, and continued monitoring to allow detection of possible hybridization with other canid species. Finally, we found jackal DNA at 21 damage cases during 2013-2018, and there are altogether 30 noninvasive genetic samples where we can confirm jackal presence based on diagnostic alleles. Among these, 20 samples have genotype quality that will allow inclusion in future genetic analyses.

Stable isotope analyses of bone collagen are often used in palaeoecological studies to reveal environmental conditions in the habitats of different herbivore species. However, such studies require valuable reference data, obtained from analyses of modern individuals, in habitats of well-known conditions. In this article, we present the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope composition of bone collagen from modern red deer (N = 242 individuals) dwelling in various habitats (N = 15 study sites) in Europe. We investigated which of the selected climatic and environmental factors affected the δ13C and δ15N values in bone collagen of the studied specimens. Among all analyzed factors, the percent of forest cover influenced the carbon isotopic composition most significantly, and decreasing forest cover caused an increase in δ13C values. The δ15N was positively related to the proportion of open area and (only in the coastal areas) negatively related to the distance to the seashore. Using rigorous statistical methods and a large number of samples, we confirmed that δ13C and δ15N values can be used as a proxy of past habitats of red deer.

Species range expansions and (re)colonization of landscapes variously dominated by humans occur on a global scale. Understanding such range enlargements and subsequent changes in the composition of ecological communities is important for conservation management, and the golden jackal (Canis aureus) can be considered a model species for regional and continental range expansion. Although this mesopredator has been known from the Adriatic Coast of southeastern Europe for over 500 years, the species is a recent arrival further north, including in Slovenia where jackals were first confirmed in the 1950s. Research from eastern Italy found jackals with ancestry from the Dalmatian region on the Adriatic Coast and the Pannonian region further east. We predicted similar ancestry for Slovenian jackals, and examined samples from Croatia, including Dalmatia and interior regions, Serbia, Hungary, and Slovenia with 25 microsatellite markers to determine population genetic structure. We detected two distinct genetic clusters, representing the Dalmatian and Balkan-Pannonian (Pannonian) jackal populations (FST = 0.157, 95% CI: 0.112–0.209). Contrary to expectations, only few individuals in Slovenia exhibited signs of Dalmatian ancestry, and none appeared to be direct immigrants. Some results suggested a third cluster centered in northern Hungary. These divergent profiles might indicate immigration from outside the study area, and samples from regions further east are required for additional resolution. Based on our results, we hypothesize that Dalmatia has not been a substantial source for recent range expansion of the species, which has likely occurred from the east. Further investigation can help resolve the ancestry and current distribution of the Dalmatian and Pannonian populations, and the ecological relationships resulting from progressively overlapping distributions of canid species. Finally, genomic research could illuminate whether genetic variants from eastern areas might have facilitated jackal expansion into regions characterized by a colder climate, the presence of snow, and extensive forest cover; habitats seemingly avoided by the jackals occupying the Adriatic Coast and surrounding areas in southeastern Europe.

Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) has a wide distributional range in Europe and inhabits a broad range of habitats and environmental conditions. Thus, populations of roe deer show substantial variation in demographic parameters. We aimed to determine whether body mass and population density—which influence the reproductive potential of roe deer at a local scale—affect their reproductive potential at a biogeographical scale as well. We reviewed the literature (covering years 1948–2015) on in utero litter size in roe deer from 59 locations in 14 countries in Europe. Across study sites, mean litter size varied from 1.0 to 2.4 embryo or corpora lutea per female, and population density ranged from 4.5 to 73.5 individuals/km2. Mean body mass varied from 11.2 to 20.8 kg in subadult females and from 12.1 to 22.4 kg in adult females. Between 46° and 56° N, body mass of females did not show a significant trend of increase, whereas between 56° and 63° N, it increased with latitude (Bergmann’s rule). We used linear mixed-effects models (LMMs) to analyse the influence of body mass and population density (analysed separately) on litter size. Females with larger body mass produced larger litters, and this pattern was pronounced at both higher and lower latitudes. Higher population densities negatively affected litter size in a sample of all females. This macroecological analysis showed that factors influencing the reproductive potential of roe deer females at local scales produce similar effects at the biogeographical scale.

We studied transfer of metals from soil to tissues of selected free-living animals: small mammals (Myodes glareolus, Microtus arvalis, Apodemus flavicollis), Parus major and red fox (Vulpes vulpes), inhabiting Veliki Vrh, Slovenia. At the same time, we assessed the risk for these organisms on the basis of comparison with metal levels in plant and animal tissues to effect concentrations for liver, critical levels of metals, defined in Slovene legislation and Hazard Quotient calculation. The exception was Parus major. This passerine bird was replaced with Turdus merula which feeds on earthworms. Our results show that meadow and forest ecosystems at Veliki Vrh, which was exposed (especially in the past) to high levels of pollutants (including metals) from thermal power plant, are moderately polluted with Pb (forest soil, animal tissues), Hg (forest soil, animal tissues) and Cd (meadow soil, roots of grass and clovers). Nevertheless, the risk for selected free-living animals was in general insignificant, since the levels of Hg, Pb and Cd were below critical (small mammals, red fox) and lethal levels (earthworms). However, there is a probability of risk due to the intake of mercury in red fox through Myodes glareolus and of Pb in Turdus merula through earthworms, if these food sources would constitute at least half of the diet of these organisms.

Recently, the number of hooded crows (Corvus cornix) in Slovenia has increased, which has resulted in a higher number of situations perceived as human–wildlife conflicts. The purpose of our survey ...

Stable isotope analyses of bone collagen are increasingly used in ecological studies. They are especially valuable in palaeoecological research due to the time of bone collagen preservation. However, such studies are usually subjected to some limitations, such as small size of the dataset and unknown sex or age of analysed individuals, which could potentially influence the results. We investigated variability of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope composition (δ13C and δ15N) within different parts of the skeleton of modern red deer (Cervus elaphus) from Poland, Scotland (UK) and Slovenia. We also tested weather there were differences in isotopic composition of bone collagen between males and females and individuals of different ages representing various populations. The mean differences between samples taken from the same mandibles and between various bones of the same individuals amounted to not more than 0.88‰ (SE ± 0.24) for δ15N and 0.46‰ (SE ± 0.07) for δ13C. Values of δ15N and δ13C in bone collagen did not differ significantly between males and females. Furthermore, we did not find any relationship between isotopic composition of bone collagen and age of the studied individuals. We conclude that carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in the distal appendicular elements or fragments of mandible bones of the same individuals are comparable and can be alternately used in ecological studies of modern and ancient red deer specimens.

Across Europe, wild boar numbers increased in the 1960s-1970s but stabilised in the 1980s; recent evidence suggests that the numbers and impact of wild boar has grown steadily since the 1980s. As hunting is the main cause of mortality for this species, we reviewed wild boar hunting bags and hunter population trends in 18 European countries from 1982 to 2012. Hunting statistics and numbers of hunters were used as indicators of animal numbers and hunting pressure. The results confirmed that wild boar increased consistently throughout Europe, while the number of hunters remained relatively stable or declined in most countries. We conclude that recreational hunting is insufficient to limit wild boar population growth and that the relative impact of hunting on wild boar mortality had decreased. Other factors, such as mild winters, reforestation, intensification of crop production, supplementary feeding and compensatory population responses of wild boar to hunting pressure might also explain population growth. As populations continue to grow, more human-wild boar conflicts are expected unless this trend is reversed. New interdisciplinary approaches are urgently required to mitigate human-wild boar conflicts, which are otherwise destined to grow further.

Velike prostoživeče rastlinojede uvrščamo med ključne vrste kopenskih ekosistemov, saj neposredno in posredno vplivajo na številne druge skupine organizmov in na zgradbo ter delovanje celotnih ekosistemov. Veliki rastlinojedi s prehranjevanjem, teptanjem, uriniranjem in iztrebljanjem prerazporejajo hranila, vplivajo na zbitje, prezračenost in erozijo tal, razširjajo rastlinska semena ter pogosto povečujejo raznovrstnost travniških ekosistemov, še zlasti v produktivnih travniških ekosistemih, na primer v zmernem podnebju Evrope. Številčnost in prostorska razširjenost večine vrst prostoživečih prežvekovalcev narašča v večjem delu Evrope, vključno s Slovenijo. Na posameznih, prostorsko omejenih lokacijah se povečujejo težave (npr. izgube travniške krme na travinju) predvsem zaradi paše jelenjadi (Cervus elaphus L.). Deli Notranjske in Kočevske se hitro zaraščajo, hkrati so to območja z največjimi gostotami jelenjadi, kar povečuje njene pritiske na preostale travnike in pašnike, zlasti tiste, ki so intenzivneje gnojeni. Slednje se zlasti med oškodovanci (kmetovalci) pogosto poudarja kot pomembna škoda zaradi izgube v pridelavi travniške krme. Vendar lahko parkljarji vplivajo na gospodarsko donosnost travinja tudi posredno, in sicer z oblikovanjem vrstne sestave travišč ter spreminjanjem produktivnosti tal. Za celostno upravljanje je treba poznati tudi njihove neposredne in posredne ekološke vplive in pomene. V članku smo zato pripravili pregled domačih in tujih raziskav neposrednih in posrednih vplivov prostoživečih velikih rastlinojedov na travniške ekosisteme. Free-ranging large herbivores are keystone species in terrestrial ecosystems, and have an important ecological role by affecting both the structure and the function of plant communities and other groups of organisms. Large herbivores often increase plant diversity especially in more productive grasslands such as temperate grasslands in Europe. Additionally, other important effects of ruminants are redistribution of nutrients by feeding and subsequent excretion of urine and dung, soil compaction and erosion via trampling and dispersal of seeds, respectively. In Europe, populations of several ruminants species are increasing both in number and geographical distribution, and problems connected with effects of grazing of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) on grassland in some locations in Slovenia have been increasing as well. Several areas of the Inner Carniola and Kočevje regions have been overgrown with forest, and these areas have the highest density of red deer. Therefore, the pressure of red deer on the remaining grasslands is increasing and may cause important economic loss for land owners. Ungulates can affect the economic profitability of grasslands also indirectly, through the impact on species composition of grasslands and by altering the overall productivity of soil. For proper management of their populations both direct and indirect ecological impacts and value of free-ranging ungulates have to be known. Therefore, an overview of foreign and Slovene studies related to the impacts of free-ranging ruminants on grassland ecosystems is presented in the paper.

Most roe deer females produce twins and more rarely singletons and triplets. Some very rare reported cases of litters above three offspring refer to quadruplets which are, however, very much an exception in roe deer reproduction (only some tens of documented cases can be found in the scientific literature). In this paper, we present the first firm evidence that roe deer females are able to produce even five offspring. By examination of large sample set (n = 4690) of roe deer uteri and ovaries in two neighbouring countries in southern/central Europe (Italy and Slovenia), we found ten females that either carried or had potential to produce quadruplets, and in three does the (potential) litter size was even five. While one doe from Slovenia had five corpora lutea, two does from Tuscany, Italy, carried five foetuses. In both cases, all foetuses were normally and equally developed, indicating that none of them had predominant exposure to resorption/abortion. Six out of 13 females with exceptionally large potential litters (>3 offspring) had significantly higher body mass in comparison with mean body mass of all does harvested in the same hunting management district and in the same period, while five of them were significantly lighter. This indicates that some roe deer females can produce exceptionally large litters even when their phenotypic quality is not higher than the average in the population, and that such large litters are a stochastic episode rather than a reproductive performance of a very vital individual(s).

Wildlife management systems face growing challenges to cope with increasingly complex interactions between wildlife populations, the environment and human activities. In this position statement, we address the most important issues characterising current ungulate conservation and management in Europe. We present some key points arising from ecological research that may be critical for a reassessment of ungulate management in the future. Ecosystem . Population sustainability . Science-basedmanagement .Wildlifemanagement .Adaptive management

In November 2015, Slovenia erected a technical security barrier in the form of a razor-wired fence along the most exposed parts (178 km) of the Slovenia-Croatia border. Over a ten-month period (11 November 2015 – 11 September 2016), carcasses of 21 ungulates (13 red deer and 8 roe deer) and two grey herons were found entangled in the razor-wired fence, giving a mortality rate of 0.12 ungulates/km of fence. Although the direct impact of the fence on wildlife mortality is of relatively low importance, over the long-term, the fence may pose a serious threat to wildlife via its barrier effect, resulting in fragmentation of habitats and disconnection of populations. Therefore, systematic studies are urgently required to determine the implications of the fence on spatial behaviour, movements and gene flow of key species in the border zone.

Using GPS telemetry and ear tagging, we monitored wild boar sounder (a 2-year sow, a female yearling and eight piglets) captured in northern Slovenia. Five months after the capture, the sounder left its home range and first travelled 100 km west, to the three-border area between Slovenia, Austria and Italy, and from there toward southeast. The sow and three piglets were shot 2 months after start of dispersal 60 km from the capture site and in-between travelled at least 500 km. At least one piglet continued dispersal after the death of the sow, and the yearling split from the sounder during dispersal. This is the first documented case of long-distance dispersal of adult female wild boar with piglets. Several arguments suggest that long-distance dispersal of female wild boar is more common than previously reported in the literature. For wild boar and other species with predominant male dispersal, data on occasional far-dispersing females like presented here are important for understanding biology of species (e.g. metapopulations, rate of population expansion, local sex and age structure of population) and for management including control of diseases.

Cd and Pb contents were determined in 699 samples of fruiting bodies of 55 mushrooms species, collected in the period 2000-2007 in the vicinity of the largest Slovenian thermal power plant (the Salek Valley) and near an abandoned lead smelter (the Upper Meža Valley). The present study is the first regarding lead and cadmium in mushrooms from those exposed areas. Therefore, there was a significant lack of prior data. Among 55 studied mushroom species 36 species are edible and important from an ecotoxicological perspective. However, the remaining non-edible species are important for bioindication and allowed us to compare our results with other studies carried out in other polluted areas in Europe. The highest contents of Cd were found in Agaricus arvensis Schff.: Fr. (117 mg/kg dw) and Agaricus silvicola L.: Fr. (67.9 mg/kg dw), while the highest contents of Pb were found in Macrolepiota procera (Scop.) Singer (53.8 mg/kg dw) and Lycoperdon perlatum Pers. (50 mg/kg dw), respectively. Considering the high contents of both metals in fruiting bodies of edible fungi, together with FAO/WHO directives on tolerable levels of weekly intake of Pb/Cd by humans, it is evident that consumption of some mushroom species originating from both study areas may pose a significant human health risk. A. arvensis Schff.: Fr., A. silvicola L.: Fr. and Cortinarius caperatus (Pers.) Fr. originating from the Salek Valley, and Armillaria mellea Vahl. P. Kumm., Boletus edulis Bull., L. perlatum Pers., Leccinum versipelle (Fr. & Hok) Snell, and M. procera (Scop.) Singer originating from the Upper Meža Valley should not be consumed at all. Our findings are consistent with some other studies, which emphasized that mushrooms from heavily polluted areas, such as in the vicinity of smelters, accumulate extremely high amounts of metals, and should therefore be omitted from human consumption.