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9 páginas.- 5 figuras.- 51 referencias.- Supplementary information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01170-x, Soil mosses are among the most widely distributed organisms on land. Experiments and observations suggest that they contribute to terrestrial soil biodiversity and function, yet their ecological contribution to soil has never been assessed globally under natural conditions. Here we conducted the most comprehensive global standardized field study to quantify how soil mosses influence 8 ecosystem services associated with 24 soil biodiversity and functional attributes across wide environmental gradients from all continents. We found that soil mosses are associated with greater carbon sequestration, pool sizes for key nutrients and organic matter decomposition rates but a lower proportion of soil-borne plant pathogens than unvegetated soils. Mosses are especially important for supporting multiple ecosystem services where vascular-plant cover is low. Globally, soil mosses potentially support 6.43 Gt more carbon in the soil layer than do bare soils. The amount of soil carbon associated with mosses is up to six times the annual global carbon emissions from any altered land use globally. The largest positive contribution of mosses to soils occurs under a high cover of mat and turf mosses, in less-productive ecosystems and on sandy and salty soils. Our results highlight the contribution of mosses to soil life and functions and the need to conserve these important organisms to support healthy soils., The study work associated with this paper was funded by a Large Research Grant from the British Ecological Society (no. LRB17\1019; MUSGONET). D.J.E. is supported by the Hermon Slade Foundation. M.D.-B. was supported by a Ramón y Cajal grant from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (RYC2018-025483-I), a project from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation for the I + D + i (PID2020-115813RA-I00 funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033a) and a project PAIDI 2020 from the Junta de Andalucía (P20_00879). E.G. is supported by the European Research Council grant agreement 647038 (BIODESERT). M.B. is supported by a Ramón y Cajal grant from Spanish Ministry of Science (RYC2021-031797-I). A.d.l.R is supported by the AEI project PID2019-105469RB-C22. L.W. and Jianyong Wang are supported by the Program for Introducing Talents to Universities (B16011) and the Ministry of Education Innovation Team Development Plan (2013-373). The contributions of T.G. and T.U.N. were supported by the Research Program in Forest Biology, Ecology and Technology (P4-0107) and the research projects J4-3098 and J4-4547 of the Slovenian Research Agency. The contribution of P.B.R. was supported by the NSF Biological Integration Institutes grant DBI-2021898. J. Durán and A. Rodríguez acknowledge support from the FCT (2020.03670.CEECIND and SFRH/BDP/108913/2015, respectively), as well as from the MCTES, FSE, UE and the CFE (UIDB/04004/2021) research unit financed by FCT/MCTES through national funds (PIDDAC).

22 páginas.-. 5 figuras.- 64 referencias.- Supplementary Information This pdf file includes: Supplementary Figs. 1–5, Tables 1–11 and references. https://static-content.springer.com/esm/art%3A10.1038%2Fs41559-022-01935-4/MediaObjects/41559_2022_1935_MOESM1_ESM.pdf, While the contribution of biodiversity to supporting multiple ecosystem functions is well established in natural ecosystems, the relationship of the above- and below-ground diversity with ecosystem multifunctionality remains virtually unknown in urban greenspaces. Here we conducted a standardized survey of urban greenspaces from 56 municipalities across six continents, aiming to investigate the relationships of plant and soil biodiversity (diversity of bacteria, fungi, protists and invertebrates, and metagenomics-based functional diversity) with 18 surrogates of ecosystem functions from nine ecosystem services. We found that soil biodiversity across biomes was significantly and positively correlated with multiple dimensions of ecosystem functions, and contributed to key ecosystem services such as microbially driven carbon pools, organic matter decomposition, plant productivity, nutrient cycling, water regulation, plant–soil mutualism, plant pathogen control and antibiotic resistance regulation. Plant diversity only indirectly influenced multifunctionality in urban greenspaces via changes in soil conditions that were associated with soil biodiversity. These findings were maintained after controlling for climate, spatial context, soil properties, vegetation and management practices. This study provides solid evidence that conserving soil biodiversity in urban greenspaces is key to supporting multiple dimensions of ecosystem functioning, which is critical for the sustainability of urban ecosystems and human wellbeing., This study was supported by a 2019 Leonardo Grant for Researchers and Cultural Creators, BBVA Foundation (URBANFUN), and by the BES grant agreement number LRB17\1019 (MUSGONET). M.D.-B. acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation for the I+D+i project PID2020-115813RA-I00 funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033. M.D.-B. is also supported by a project of the Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER) and the Consejería de Transformación Económica, Industria, Conocimiento y Universidades of the Junta de Andalucía (FEDER Andalucía 2014-2020 Objetivo temático ‘01-Refuerzo de la investigación, el desarrollo tecnológico y la innovación’) associated with the research project P20_00879 (ANDABIOMA). H.C. was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences (XDA28020202), National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFD1500202) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (91951109, 42230511, 92251305). K.F. was supported by Young Elite Scientist Sponsorship Program by CAST (2021QNRC001) and China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2021M703302). F.D.A. and S.A. were supported by ANID FONDECYT 11180538 and 1170995. J.P.V. was supported by SERB (SIR/2022/000626, EEQ/2021/001083), DST (DST/INT/SL/P-31/2021) and Banaras Hindu University, IoE (6031) incentives grant for plant-microbe interaction and soil microbiome research. T.G. and T.U.N were supported by the Slovenian Research Agency grants P4-0107, J4-3098 and J4-4547.

The structure and function of the soil microbiome of urban greenspaces remain largely undetermined. We conducted a global field survey in urban greenspaces and neighboring natural ecosystems across 56 cities from six continents, and found that urban soils are important hotspots for soil bacterial, protist and functional gene diversity, but support highly homogenized microbial communities worldwide. Urban greenspaces had a greater proportion of fast-growing bacteria, algae, amoebae, and fungal pathogens, but a lower proportion of ectomycorrhizal fungi than natural ecosystems. These urban ecosystems also showed higher proportions of genes associated with human pathogens, greenhouse gas emissions, faster nutrient cycling, and more intense abiotic stress than natural environments. City affluence, management practices, and climate were fundamental drivers of urban soil communities. Our work paves the way toward a more comprehensive global-scale perspective on urban greenspaces, which is integral to managing the health of these ecosystems and the well-being of human populations., M.D.-B. and this project were supported by a 2019 Leonardo Grant for Researchers and Cultural Creators, BBVA Foundation (URBANFUN) and by the BES grant agreement no. LRB17\1019 (MUSGONET). M.D.-B. is also supported by a Ramón y Cajal grant from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (RYC2018-025483-I). N.F. was supported by grants from the U.S. National Science Foundation (DEB1556090 and DEB1542653). L.T. acknowledges support from Norway-Baltic collaboration grant EMP442 and Estonian Science Foundation grant PRG632. B.K.S. acknowledges a research award by the Humboldt Foundation and funding from the Australian Research Council (DP190103714). F.A. is supported by ANID FONDECYT 11180538 and 1170995. S.A. is funded by ANID FONDECYT 1170995 and ANID ANILLO ACT192027. F.B. and J.L.M. acknowledge support from the Spanish Ministry and FEDER funds for the project AGL2017-85755-R, the i-LINK+ 2018 (LINKA20069) from CSIC, as well as funds from “Fundación Séneca” from Murcia Province (19896/GERM/15). C.P. acknowledges support from the Spanish State Plan for Scientific and Technical Research and Innovation (2013–2016), award reference AGL2016-75762-R (AEI/FEDER, UE). M.B. acknowledges support from a Juan de la Cierva Formación grant from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (FJCI-2018-036520-I). T.P.M. would like to acknowledge contributions from the National Research Foundation of South Africa and cities involved in the South African survey. Slovenian coauthors were supported by the research project J4-1766 “Methodology approaches in genome-based diversity and ecological plasticity study of truffles from their natural distribution areas” and the Research Program in Forest Biology, Ecology, and Technology (P4-0107) of the Slovenian Research Agency. J.D. and A. Rey acknowledge support from the FCT (IF/00950/2014 and SFRH/BDP/108913/2015, respectively), as well as from the MCTES, FSE, UE, and the CFE (UIDB/04004/2020) research unit financed by FCT/MCTES through national funds (PIDDAC). J.P.V. acknowledges financial support from SERB (Science and Engineering Research Board) (EEQ/2017/000775) India. J.-Z.H. and H.-W.H. are financially supported by Australian Research Council (DP170101628).