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Summary Elephant ranges in Asia overlap with human-use areas, leading to frequent and often negative two-way interactions, a fraction of which result in human fatalities. Minimizing such negative interactions rests on gaining a mechanistic understanding of their patterns and underlying processes. In Chhattisgarh (India), a rewilding population of 250–300 elephants that have recently expanded their range from neighbouring states through dispersal has been causing annual losses of >60 human lives. Using logistic regression models, we examined the influences of eight plausible predictors of the occurrence of elephant-related human fatality incidents. We found that 70% of incidents occurred in areas with high-intensity habitat use by elephants; the other 30% were in areas of intermediate and sporadic elephant habitat use. The probability of human fatalities was high along the roads connecting settlements and in areas with frequent house break-ins by elephants, and this probability was also affected by the spatial geometry of forest patches. Immediate practical options to minimize fatal interactions include community-based early-warning systems and the use of portable barriers around settlements. Judicious landscape-level land-use planning aimed at maintaining the resilience of remnant intact elephant habitats will be critical to preventing the dispersal of elephants into suboptimal habitats, which can create complex conflict situations.

[Context] Climate change is considered an important factor affecting the distribution and genetic diversity of species. While many studies have described the influence of climate change on population structure at various scales, little is known about the genetic consequences of a changing climate on endemic species., [Objectives] To assess possible changes in the distribution and genetic structure of the endangered Nilgiri tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius), which is endemic to the Western Ghats in India, under climate change and human disturbances., [Methods] We integrated tahr occurrence and nuclear DNA data with environmental geo-datasets to project the response of tahr populations to future climate change with respect to its distribution, genetic diversity and population structure. We screened the environmental variables using MaxEnt to identify a manageable set of predictors to be used in an ensemble approach, based on ten species distribution modelling techniques, to quantify the current tahr distribution. We then projected the distribution and genetic structure under two climate change scenarios., [Results] We found that suitable habitat for tahr (9,605 km2) is determined predominantly by a combination of climatic, human disturbance and topographic factors that result in a highly fragmented habitat throughout its distribution range in the Western Ghats. Under the severe high emissions RCP8.5 scenario tahr populations may lose more than half of their available habitat (55.5%) by 2070. Application of spatial Bayesian clustering suggests that their current genetic structure comprise four genetic clusters, with three of them reflecting a clear geographic structure. However, under climate change, two of these clusters may be lost, and in the future a homogenization of the genetic background of the remaining populations may arise due to prevalence of one gene pool cluster in the remaining populations., [Conclusions] Our interdisciplinary approach that combines niche modelling and genetic data identified the climate refugia (i.e., the remaining stable habitats that overlap with the current suitable areas), where the tahr populations would be restricted to small, isolated and fragmented areas. Essential factors to avert local extinctions of vulnerable tahr populations are a reduction of human disturbances, dispersal of tahr between fragmented populations, and the availability of corridors., This research was supported by the Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India, and by a German Research Foundation (DFG) fellowship awarded to RK (project number 273837911).

The Indian subcontinent has witnessed disproportionate declines in large mammalian herbivore communities. The northern swamp deer (Rucervus duvaucelii duvaucelii) exemplifies the conservation challenges of typical non-protected area species, where apart from distribution status other ecological information is limited for the upper Gangetic basin population. We combined elements of radio-telemetry and conservation genetics to evaluate dispersal patterns, population connectivity and assess genetic variation and inbreeding status of this population living across a highly human-dominated area. We genetically identified 266 unique swamp deer and further analyses revealed presence of two spatially-admixed genetic lineages with moderate heterozygosity (Ho=0.51, SD= 0.10) and low inbreeding (FIS=0.133) status. Multi- disciplinary evidence suggests that the small, isolated grassland patches between Jhilmil Jheel Conservation Reserve (JJCR) and Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary (HWLS) are highly preferred by swamp deer during migrations and are genetically connected. The southern part of the area in HWLS showed early signatures of genetic discontinuity that require immediate conservation attention. We hypothesized that the human settlement history of this landscape, river dynamics and species’ ability to negotiate various pressures and disperse has helped to maintain such connectivity. While these signatures are encouraging for this small, isolated cervid population, careful management interventions are required to ensure the integrity and functionality of this landscape. We recommend a scientifically robust population estimation approach across this landscape and a multi-stakeholder-driven strategies to augment population and habitat recovery, plantation and riverscape management to ensure long-term survival of this species.

1.AbstractApex predators have critical roles in maintaining the structure of ecosystem functioning by controlling intraguild subordinate populations. Such dominant-subordinate interactions involve agonistic interactions including direct (death/displacement) or indirect (physiological and/or health implications) impacts on the subordinates. As these indirect effects are often mediated through physiological processes, it is important to quantify such responses for better understanding of population parameters.We used a well-known sympatric large carnivore intraguild system involving tiger (Panthera tigris) and leopard (Panthera pardus) to understand the dietary and physiological responses under a spatio-temporal gradient of tiger competition pressures in Rajaji Tiger Reserve (RTR), a major source tiger population of the western Terai-Arc Landscape, India between 2015-2020. The park provided a natural experimental set-up for tiger competition with the eastern part (ERTR) having high tiger density and the western (WRTR) part with functionally no competition from tigers.We conducted systematic faecal sampling in the winters of 2015 and 2020 from ERTR and WRTR to assess diet and physiological measures. Analyses of leopard-confirmed faeces suggest a dietary-niche separation as a consequence of tiger competition. In 2020, we found increased occurrence of large-bodied prey species without tiger competition in WRTR. Physiological measures followed the dietary responses where leopards with large-sized prey in diet showed higher fT3M and lower fGCM measures in WRTR. In contrast, ERTR leopards showed lower levels of fT3M as well as fGCM in 2020, possibly due to intense competition from tigers. Overall, these pattens strongly indicate a physiological cost of sympatry where competition with dominant tigers resulted in elevated nutritional stress.The combination of the natural habitat providing unique experimental setup, spatio-temporal sampling strategy and multidisciplinary approaches provide critical conservation perspectives for leopards, particularly in the context of recent increase in tiger numbers across India. We recommend expansion of leopard monitoring and population estimation efforts to buffers, developing appropriate plans for human-leopard conflict mitigation and intensive efforts to understand leopard population dynamics patterns to ensure their persistence during the ongoing Anthropocene.

Large carnivores strongly shape ecological interactions within their respective ecosystems, but experience significant conflicts with human across their range due to their specific ecological resource requirements. The tiger (Panthera tigris) typifies the challenges faced by the large carnivore communities globally. India retains majority of the global tiger population with significant numbers outside protected areas (PAs) that are involved in conflicts from livestock predation and human/tiger death. To understand the prey selection patterns and spatio-temporal patterns of livestock predation-related conflict issues we investigated tiger food habits across the Indian part of the Terai-Arc Landscape (TAL), a globally-important tiger conservation landscape in India. We used 510 genetically-confirmed tiger faeces collected across the landscape and ascertained 10 wild and livestock as major prey species. Large-bodied species (sambar, swamp deer, nilgai, chital, wild pig and livestock) comprised ~94% of tiger diet, with sambar, chital and livestock were the major prey species. Habitat-specific (Shivalik-Bhabar and Terai) analyses show significantly different pattern of prey selections determined by abundance and prey body weight. Results also suggest that PA and non-PAs of Terai habitat are more prone to livestock depredation-related conflicts, and careful management interventions and community involvements are required to reduce such threats. We suggest long-term plans including population estimation of tigers and prey outside PAs, reducing grazing pressures and cattle enumeration, detailed investigation of tiger deaths etc. to ensure future tiger sustainability across this habitat.

Conservation depends on acquiring timely knowledge on species’ ecology to alleviate the risks of biodiversity loss driven by anthropogenic stressors. Himalayan freshwater ecosystems are exceedingly threatened by the compounding effects of rising developmental pressure and climate change, jeopardizing biodiversity nested within this imperilled landscape. Riverine ecosystems of the Himalayan foothill forests of India are a stronghold of the vulnerable smooth-coated otter populations. This study entails the understanding of resource utilisation by the smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) in terms of habitat use and dietary composition in seven rivers along the Himalayan foothills in India. We surveyed 121.09 km of rivers for otter signs and associated habitat variables. Using Generalised Linear Models, we assessed the factors influencing otter habitat use. We estimated the relative abundance and catch per unit effort of fish species and evaluated otter diet based on spraint samples (n = 120) using frequency of occurrence and score-bulk estimate methods. Habitat use by otters is governed by a combination of habitat components, which are intricately linked to different requirements such as feeding, grooming, and denning. We found that habitat use was positively associated with channel depth, moderate vegetation, and bank substrate types – bedrock, boulders, sand, and grass. Whereas, increasing distance to escape cover, sparse vegetation, channel width, and anthropogenic disturbance negatively influenced habitat use. Dietary analyses revealed that relatively abundant fish species viz., Tor putitora and Barilius vagra, predominated the diet of otters. Echoing the principles of optimal foraging theory, our results indicated that small-medium sized fishes of the size range 79.05–199.92 mm, were consumed more often, and larger fishes (> 263.24 mm) were consumed opportunistically. Our findings provide important conservation insights on the status of the smooth-coated otter, their interactions with different habitat components, and dietary spectrum in rivers of the Himalayan foothills. Overall, our study gives cognizance to the importance of preserving freshwater and riparian habitats to ensure the persistence of otters and their prey in the region.

Grassland habitats currently face severe anthropogenic exploitations leading to cascading effects on the survival of grassland-dependent biodiversity globally, particularly in non-protected areas. Significant amount of such biodiversity-rich grasslands in India are found outside protected areas but lack quantitative information on their status. We evaluated the current and historical (30 years) status of the grasslands using a combination of intensive field surveys and GIS tools across one of the most fertile, human-dominated region: the upper Gangetic Plains of north India. On-ground mapping and visual classifications revealed 57% decline in grassland habitats between 1985 (418 km2) and 2015 (178km2), mostly driven by conversion to croplands (74% contribution). Radio-telemetry data from the largest endemic cervid swamp deer (n=2) showed grassland-dominated average home range (50% BBMM) size of 1.02 km2. The animals highly preferred these patches (average Ivlev’s index- 0.85) and showed highest temporal continuity (88%) compared to other LULC classes. Camera trapping within the core habitats suggests critical use of these patches as fawning/breeding grounds. Habitat suitability analysis indicates only ∼18% of the entire area along Ganges is suitable for swamp deer. Accurate mapping (86% accuracy) and characterization of four major grass species revealed a total 144.04 km² vegetation area, dominted by Saccharum sp. (35%). We recommend protection and recovery of these critical grassland patches to maintain ‘dynamic corridors’ and other appropriate management strategies involving multiple stakeholders to ensure survival of this critical ecosystem. Such evaluations, if spatially expanded, would be critical to restore this rapidly vanishing ecosystem worldwide.

Most endangered species exist today in small populations, many of which are isolated. Evolution in such populations is largely governed by genetic drift. Empirical evidence for drift affecting striking phenotypes based on substantial genetic data are rare. Approximately 37% of tigers (Panthera tigris) in the Similipal Tiger Reserve (in eastern India) are pseudomelanistic, characterized by wide, merged stripes. Camera trap data across the tiger range revealed the presence of pseudomelanistic tigers only in Similipal. We investigated the genetic basis for pseudomelanism and examined the role of drift in driving this phenotype's frequency. Whole-genome data and pedigree-based association analyses from captive tigers revealed that pseudomelanism cosegregates with a conserved and functionally important coding alteration in Transmembrane Aminopeptidase Q (Taqpep), a gene responsible for similar traits in other felid species. Noninvasive sampling of tigers revealed a high frequency of the Taqpep p.H454Y mutation in Similipal (12 individuals, allele frequency = 0.58) and absence from all other tiger populations (395 individuals). Population genetic analyses confirmed few (minimal number) tigers in Similipal, and its genetic isolation, with poor geneflow. Pairwise FST (0.33) at the mutation site was high but not an outlier. Similipal tigers had low diversity at 81 single nucleotide polymorphisms (mean heterozygosity = 0.28, SD = 0.27). Simulations were consistent with founding events and drift as possible drivers for the observed stark difference of allele frequency. Our results highlight the role of stochastic processes in the evolution of rare phenotypes. We highlight an unusual evolutionary trajectory in a small and isolated population of an endangered species.

Forest cover is the primary determinant of elephant distribution, thus, understanding forest loss and fragmentation is crucial for elephant conservation. We assessed deforestation and patterns of forest fragmentation during 1930–2020 in Chure Terai Madhesh Lanscape (CTML) which covers the entire elephant range in Nepal. Forest cover maps and fragmentation matrices were generated using multi-source data (Topographic maps and Landsat images of 1930, 1975, 2000, and 2020) and spatiotemporal changes was quantified. Forest cover within the elephant range was 19,069 km2. Overall, 21.5% of elephant habitat was lost between 1930 to 2020, with a larger (12.3%) forest cover loss between 1930 & 1975. Area of the large forests (Core 3) in CTML has decreased by 43.08% whereas smaller patches (Core 2, Core 1, edge and patch forests) has increased multifold during 1930–2020. The continued habitat loss and fragmentation probably fragmented elephant populations during the last century and made them insular with long-term ramifications for elephant conservation and human-elephant conflict. Given the substantial loss in forest cover and high levels of fragmentation, improving the resilience of elephant habitats in Nepal would urgently require habitat and corridor restoration to enable the movement of elephants.

Forest cover is the primary determinant of elephant distribution, thus, understanding forest loss and fragmentation is crucial for elephant conservation. We assessed deforestation and patterns of forest fragmentation between 1930 and 2020 in Chure Terai Madhesh Lanscape (CTML) which covers the entire elephant range in Nepal. Forest cover maps and fragmentation matrices were generated using multi-source data (Topographic maps and Landsat satellite images of 1930, 1975, 2000, and 2020) and spatiotemporal change was quantified. At present, 19,069 km2 forest cover in CTML is available as the elephant habitat in Nepal. Overall, 21.5% of elephant habitat was lost between 1930 and 2020, with a larger (12.3%) forest cover loss between 1930 and 1975. Area of the large forests (Core 3) has decreased by 43.08% whereas smaller patches (Core 2, Core 1, edge and patch forests) has increased multifold between 1930 and 2020. The continued habitat loss and fragmentation probably fragmented elephant populations during the last century and made them insular with long-term ramifications for elephant conservation and human-elephant conflict. Given the substantial loss in forest cover and high levels of fragmentation, improving the resilience of elephant populations in Nepal would urgently require habitat and corridor restoration to enable the movement of elephants.

Attacks on humans by Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is an extreme form of human–elephant conflict. It is a serious issue in southern lowland Nepal where elephant‐related human fatalities are higher than other wildlife. Detailed understanding of elephant attacks on humans in Nepal is still lacking, hindering to devising appropriate strategies for human–elephant conflict mitigation. This study documented spatiotemporal pattern of elephant attacks on humans, factors associated with the attacks, and human/elephant behavior contributing to deaths of victims when attacked. We compiled all the documented incidences of elephant attacks on humans in Nepal for last 20 years across Terai and Chure region of Nepal. We also visited and interviewed 412 victim families (274 fatalities and 138 injuries) on elephant attacks. Majority of the victims were males (87.86%) and had low level of education. One fourth of the elephant attacks occurred while chasing the elephants. Solitary bulls or group of subadult males were involved in most of the attack. We found higher number of attacks outside the protected area. People who were drunk and chasing elephants using firecrackers were more vulnerable to the fatalities. In contrast, chasing elephants using fire was negatively associated with the fatalities. Elephant attacks were concentrated in proximity of forests primarily affecting the socioeconomically marginalized communities. Integrated settlement, safe housing for marginalized community, and community grain house in the settlement should be promoted to reduce the confrontation between elephants and humans in entire landscape for their long‐term survival., We compiled all the documented incidences of elephant attacks on humans in Nepal for last 20 years across elephant range in Nepal. The study documented spatiotemporal pattern of elephant attacks on humans, factors associated with the attacks, and human–elephant behavior contributing to deaths of victims when attacked. We documented that elephant attacks were concentrated in proximity of forests primarily affecting the socioeconomically marginalized communities.

Genetic analysis is an important tool in understanding population structure, genetic diversity, and phylogenetics of endangered species likely to be affected by microevolution and anthropogenic factors. Western Ghats landscape is one of the identified biodiversity hotspots in India, and micro-evolutionary processes are observed in this landscape due to the presence of the gaps in the mountain ranges. Nilgiri tahr is endemic to and distributed in this landscape while very little is known about genetic characteristics, population structure and impact of these gaps on the species. In the present study, two different populations of Nilgiri tahr from the north (NPG) and south (SPG) of Palghat gap (PG) were studied using the cytochrome b gene (Cyt b; 310 bp) of mtDNA genome in the Western Ghats, India. Two variable sites were observed in the Cyt b fragment while the mean pairwise genetic distance between these two populations was 0.007. All the samples phylogenetically clustered in either north or south of PG. The presence of shallow divergence indicates the presence of suitable habitat in past which may have facilitated movement between NPG and SPG. A subsequent change in Paleo-climatic conditions and gradual formation of PG may have resulted in population diversification during the Pleistocene. Besides, Forensically Informative Nucleotide Sequence (FINS) observed would help in geo-assigning any individual from NPG or SPG to understand the likely influences on population demography due to poaching.

Hematological and serum biochemical reference values for 33 free-ranging sambar deer following immobilization with medetomidine (70–100 μgkg−1) and ketamine (1–2 mgkg−1) in Sariska Tiger Reserve in India were established and the differences across sex and age group were compared. Hematological and biochemical variables across different age-classes for red blood cell count, eosinophils, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, triglycerides, and blood glucose varied significantly though the hematological values did not vary between sexes. Blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels were significantly influenced by sex in the present study. Interpretation of the result, however, needs to be made with caution due to the low number of sub-adult compared to adults in the present study. The study highlights the need for understanding the source of individual variation for meaningful interpretation. This paper provides the first report of baseline hematologic and serum biochemistry values for free-ranging sambar deer that can form basis for assessing the state of health and nutritional condition of the animal.

Non-invasive stress and nutritional hormones and their interactions are increasingly being used to monitor psychological and nutritional physiology in free-ranging animals at different ecological scales. However, a number of extrinsic and intrinsic factors including hormone-inert dietary materials, inorganic matters etc. are known to affect accurate hormone measures. Here we addressed the impacts of inorganic matter (IOM) on corticosterone and T3 measures in wild tiger (n=193 from Terai Arc landscape, India) and captive lion (n=120 from Sakkarbaug Zoological Garden, Gujarat, India) faeces and evaluated possible corrective measures. The wild tiger samples contained highly variable IOM content (9-98%, mostly with >40% IOM) compared to captive Asiatic lion (17-57%, majority with

India led the global tiger conservation initiatives since last decade and has doubled its wild tiger population to 2967 (2603-3346). The survival of these growing populations residing inside the continuously shrinking habitats is a major concern, which can only be tackled through focused landscape-scale conservation planning across five major extant Indian tiger landscapes. The Terai-Arc landscape (TAL) is one of the ‘global priority’ tiger conservation landscapes holding 22% of the country’s wild tigers. We used intensive field-sampling, genetic analyses and GIS modelling to investigate tiger population structure, source-sink dynamics and functionality of the existing corridors across TAL. Genetic analyses with 219 tigers revealed three low, but sigficantly differentiated tiger subpopulations. Overall, we identified Seven source and 10 sink areas in TAL through genetic migrant and gene flow analyses. GIS modelling identified total 19 (10 high, three medium and six low conductance) corridors in this landscape, with 10 being critical to maintain landscape connectivity. We suggest urgent management attention towards 2707 sq. km. non-protected habitat, mitigation measures associated with ongoing linear infrastructure developments and transboundary coordination with Nepal to ensure habitat and genetic connectivity and long-term sustainability of tigers in this globally important landscape.

The wild water buffalo (Bubalus arnee) is one of the most endangered and least studied large bovid in the Indian subcontinent. India retains 90% of the estimated global population of >4000 individuals as two fragmented populations in Assam and Chhattisgarh, both threatened by habitat loss and degradation, hunting, disease from livestock, and hybridization with the domestic buffalos. Small, fragmented population size and potential hybridisation pressures from co-occurring domestic buffalos are the major conservation challenges. For the first time, we sequenced the 16,357 bp long mitogenome of three opportunistically collected wild water buffalo samples from Assam (n = 1) and Chhattishgarh (n = 2). The annotated sequence has a base composition of 26.4% T, 26.6% C, 33.1% A and 13.9% G depicting an AT-rich mitogenome composition, including 13 protein-coding genes (11,361 bp), 22 transfer RNA (tRNA) (1514 bp), two ribosomal genes (2525 bp), and a non-coding control region (928 bp). The gene order is conserved with other bovid species. Comparative mitogenome analyses showed both populations are genetically similar but significantly different from domestic buffalo. We also identified structural differences in seven tRNA secondary structures between both species. The genetic distance between wild buffalo and other bovids varied between 0.103 and 0.122. Multiple Bayesian phylogenetic trees showed that both wild and domestic water buffalo formed sister clades which were paraphyletic to other potentially sympatric species of genus Bos. This study provides baseline information on wild buffalo mitogenome for further research on phylogeny, phylogeography and hybrid assessment and help conserving this endangered species.

The wild water buffalo (Bubalus arnee) is one of the most endangered and least studied large bovid in the Indian subcontinent. India retains 90% of the global population as two fragmented populations in Assam and Chhattisgarh, both threatened by habitat loss and degradation, hunting, disease from livestock, and hybridization with the domestic buffalos. For the first time, we sequenced the 16,357 bp long mitogenome of pure wild water buffalo from both populations. The annotated genes included 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA, two ribosomal genes, and a non-coding control region. Comparative mitogenome analyses showed both populations are genetically similar but significantly different from domestic buffalo. We also identified structural differences in seven tRNA secondary structures between both species. Both wild and domestic water buffalo formed sister clades which were paraphyletic to genus Bos. This study provides baseline information on wild buffalo mitogenome for further research on phylogeny, phylogeography and hybrid assessment and help conserving this endangered species.

Sea turtles use beaches that are suitable for the successful development of embryos. Heavy nesting on beaches may have detrimental effects on the survival of embryos as the result of the destruction of nests by conspecifics and physiological stress of the incubation substrate. We studied nesting space dynamics and the impacts of nesting Olive Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) females on the hatching success in Gahirmatha rookery, along east coast of India. A reduction in beach area following a recent post super-cyclone presented an opportunity to test the hypothesis predicting that nest density would negatively affect nest and hatching success. The average calculated area was 475.4 cm2 for one nest cavity; therefore, the nest capacity of the beach was estimated to be 85,176 clutches. The high degree of nest overlap resulted in relatively low hatching success. We expect, however, that if erosion is arrested, the nesting space is likely to expand and thereby increase long-term hatching succ...

The swamp deerRucervus duvauceliiis the largest grassland-dwelling endemic cervid of India and Nepal. With a declining population trend across its range, this species is found in fragmented habitats of northern, north-eastern and central India and south-western Nepal. The northern swamp deer subspeciesRucervus duvaucelii duvauceliioccurs in small wetland patches across the states of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh in India and has lost most of its habitat in the last century. Information about the distribution of the swamp deer in the upper Gangetic plains is limited, except in the Jhilmil Jheel Conservation Reserve in Uttarakhand and around the Bijnor barrage area of Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary in Uttar Pradesh. We surveyed the upper Gangetic plains between the Reserve and the Sanctuary, including some adjoining areas and three tributaries of the Ganges, to assess the status of these habitats, current swamp deer distribution and the threats faced by the species. We found several areas harbouring swamp deer within non-protected wetlands along the entire surveyed stretch of the upper Ganges and a previously unreported population in Uttar Pradesh. We documented major threats including habitat conversion, livestock grazing, poaching, conflict and other anthropogenic disturbances. We recommend community driven conservation and management ofRucervus duvaucelii duvauceliiin this fragmented landscape to ensure survival of this species and other threatened fauna of these wetlands and grasslands.

Faecal glucocorticoid (GC) and triiodothyronine (T3) metabolites and their interactions are increasingly used to monitor perceived stress and nutritional challenges in free-ranging animals. However, a number of extrinsic and intrinsic factors including hormone-inert dietary materials, inorganic matters etc. are known to affect reliable hormone metabolite quantifications. In this study, the impacts of inorganic matter (IOM) on faecal GC (fGCMs) and T3 (fT3Ms) metabolite measure were addressed in wild tiger (n = 193 from Terai Arc landscape, India) and captive lion (n = 120 from Sakkarbaug Zoological Garden, Gujarat, India) and possible corrective measures were evaluated. The wild tiger samples contained highly variable IOM content (9-98%, mostly with > 40% IOM) compared to captive Asiatic lion (17-57%, majority with

Understanding species distributions, patterns of change and threats can form the basis for assessing the conservation status of elusive species that are difficult to survey. The snow leopardPanthera unciais the top predator of the Central and South Asian mountains. Knowledge of the distribution and status of this elusive felid and its wild prey is limited. Using recall-based key-informant interviews we estimated site use by snow leopards and their primary wild prey, blue sheepPseudois nayaurand Asiatic ibexCapra sibirica, across two time periods (past: 1985–1992; recent: 2008–2012) in the state of Himachal Pradesh, India. We also conducted a threat assessment for the recent period. Probability of site use was similar across the two time periods for snow leopards, blue sheep and ibex, whereas for wild prey (blue sheep and ibex combined) overall there was an 8% contraction. Although our surveys were conducted in areas within the presumed distribution range of the snow leopard, we found snow leopards were using only 75% of the area (14,616 km2). Blue sheep and ibex had distinct distribution ranges. Snow leopards and their wild prey were not restricted to protected areas, which encompassed only 17% of their distribution within the study area. Migratory livestock grazing was pervasive across ibex distribution range and was the most widespread and serious conservation threat. Depredation by free-ranging dogs, and illegal hunting and wildlife trade were the other severe threats. Our results underscore the importance of community-based, landscape-scale conservation approaches and caution against reliance on geophysical and opinion-based distribution maps that have been used to estimate national and global snow leopard ranges.

BackgroundLarge carnivores maintain the stability and functioning of ecosystems. Currently, many carnivore species face declining population sizes due to natural and anthropogenic pressures. The leopard,Panthera pardus, is probably the most widely distributed and highly adaptable large felid globally, still persisting in most of its historic range. However, we lack subspecies-level data on country or regional scale on population trends, as ecological monitoring approaches are difficult to apply on such wide-ranging species. We used genetic data from leopards sampled across the Indian subcontinent to investigate population structure and patterns of demographic decline.MethodsWe collected faecal samples from the Terai-Arc landscape of northern India and identified 56 unique individuals using a panel of 13 microsatellite markers. We merged this data with already available 143 leopard individuals and assessed genetic structure at country scale. Subsequently, we investigated the demographic history of each identified subpopulations and compared genetic decline analyses with countrywide local extinction probabilities.ResultsOur genetic analyses revealed four distinct subpopulations corresponding to Western Ghats, Deccan Plateau-Semi Arid, Shivalik and Terai region of the north Indian landscape, each with high genetic variation. Coalescent simulations with microsatellite loci revealed a possibly human-induced 75–90% population decline between ∼120–200 years ago across India. Population-specific estimates of genetic decline are in concordance with ecological estimates of local extinction probabilities in these subpopulations obtained from occupancy modeling of the historic and current distribution of leopards in India.ConclusionsOur results confirm the population decline of a widely distributed, adaptable large carnivore. We re-iterate the relevance of indirect genetic methods for such species in conjunction with occupancy assessment and recommend that detailed, landscape-level ecological studies on leopard populations are critical to future conservation efforts. Our approaches and inference are relevant to other widely distributed, seemingly unaffected carnivores such as the leopard.

Large carnivores maintain the stability and functioning of ecosystems. Currently, many carnivore species face declining population sizes due to natural and anthropogenic pressures. The leopard,Panthera pardus, is probably the most widely distributed and adaptable large carnivore, still persisting in most of its’ historic range. However, we lack subspecies level data on country or regional scale on population trends, as ecological monitoring approaches are difficult to apply on such wide-ranging species. We used genetic data from leopards sampled across the Indian subcontinent to investigate population structure and patterns of demographic decline. Our genetic analyses revealed four distinct subpopulations corresponding to Western Ghats, Deccan Plateau-Semi Arid, Shivalik and Terai region of north Indian landscapes, each with high genetic variation. Coalescent simulations with 13 microsatellite loci revealed a 75-90% population decline in between 120-200 years ago across India, possibly human induced. Population-specific estimates of genetic decline are in concordance with ecological estimates of local extinction probabilities in four sub-populations obtained from occupancy modelling of historic and current distribution of leopards in India. Our results confirm population decline of a widely distributed, adaptable large carnivore. We re-iterate the relevance of indirect genetic methods for such species, and recommend that detailed, landscape-level ecological studies on leopard populations are critical to future conservation efforts. Our approaches and inference are relevant to other widely distributed, seemingly unaffected carnivores such as the leopard.

Burgeoning pressures of habitat loss is a major cause of herbivore decline across India, forcing them to coexist with humans in non-protected areas. Their conservation in such landscapes is challenging due to paucity of ecological and demographic information. The northern subspecies of swamp deer, Rucervus duvaucelii duvaucelii, is one such herbivore that lives across human-dominated landscapes in Terai region and upper Gangetic plains of north India. Here, we describe species-specific molecular markers and a cervid-specific molecular sexing assay for swamp deer and four other coexisting cervids sambar, chital, barking deer and hog deer. Our markers show species-specific band patterns and a high success rate of 88.21% in large number of field collected reference samples for all species. Faecal pellets from pilot swamp deer survey samples from upper Ganges basin show 93.81% success rate, and only 5.5% misidentification based on morphological characteristics. Our cervid-specific molecular sexing multiplex assay accurately ascertained 81.15% samples to respective sexes. These molecular approaches provide an easy, quick and cheap option to generate critical information on herbivore population parameters and aid their conservation in this mosaic of protected and non-protected grassland habitats.

We estimated tiger and wild prey abundance in the Bardia National Park of Nepal. Tiger abundance was estimated from camera trap mark recapture in 85 days between December, 2008 to March, 2009 by placing 50 camera trap pairs in 197 trap locations with a sampling effort of 2,944 trap nights. We photo captured 16 individuals (≥1.5 year old) tigers identified on the basis of their unique stripe patterns. The number and density (per 100 km2) of tiger was 19 (SE 3.3) and 1.31 (SE 0.32), respectively. Distance sampling was used to assess the prey abundance on 170 systematically laid line transects between May–June, 2009. The density of all the wild prey (individuals/km2) was 56.3 (SE 6.5). The density (individuals/km2Banko JanakariA Journal of Forestry Information for NepalVol. 26, No. 1, Page: 60-69, 2016

Efforts are on to recover tiger populations range-wide, but we lack suitable metrics to characterise and evaluate such recoveries. Identifying such metrics requires an understanding of tiger population dynamics and its ecological correlates in either recovering populations or those exposed to anthropogenic influences. We monitored a recovering tiger population from 2004 to 2017 in Rajaji National Park, India. Using photographic data and spatial capture-recapture models in an inviolate site vacated by pastoralists (zone 1), we identified demographic parameters of a recovering population. By contrasting it with a site that is presently occupied by pastoralists (zone 3) and one that is isolated (zone 3), we identified conditions facilitating recovery. In zone 1, connected to a large source population in Corbett Tiger Reserve, density increased from 2.08 tigers/100 km2 to 7.07 tigers/100 km2 corresponding to an annual growth rate of 4.5%. Density also increased in zone 2 (2.6 tigers/100 km2 to 6.22 tigers/100 km2), but estimated apparent survival was 0.47 against 0.81 in zone 1. Recovery in zone 1 was accompanied by increased survival of females, while female tenure was shorter in zone 2. Due to the lack of functional connectivity, tigers in zone 3 are facing local extinction. Our results demonstrate that creating inviolate spaces to secure breeding populations and maintaining landscape-wide connectivity to expand breeding cores is critical for recovery. We highlight that relying solely on population increase may lead to unreliable inferences about population performance and instead suggest tracking survival and female land tenure to qualify recovery and success of conservation interventions.

Faecal samples have become important non-invasive source of information in wildlife biology and ecological research. Despite regular use of faeces, there is no universal protocol available for faeces collection and storage to answer various questions in wildlife biology. We collected 1408 faeces from ten different species using a dry sampling approach, and achieved 94.87% and 86.02% success rate in mitochondrial and nuclear marker amplifications. We also suggest a universal framework to use the same samples for different use. This protocol provides an easy, quick and cheap option to collect non-invasive samples from species living at different environmental conditions to answer multidisciplinary questions in wildlife biology.

Information on the abundance of tigers Panthera tigris is essential for effective conservation of the species. The main aim of this study was to determine the status of tigers in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, including the Churia hills, using a camera-trap based mark–recapture abundance estimate. Camera traps (n = 310) were placed in an area of 1,261 km2 from 20 January to 22 March 2010. The study area was divided into three blocks and each block was trapped for 19–21 days, with a total effort of 3,582 man-days, 170 elephant-days and 4,793 camera-trap nights. The effectively camera-trapped area was 2,596 km2. Camera stations were located 1.5–2 km apart. Sixty-two tigers (age ⩾ 1.5 years), comprising 15 males, 41 females and six of unidentified sex, were identified from 344 photographs. The heterogeneity model Mh (jackknife) was the best fit for the capture history data. A capture probability ($\hat P$) of 0.05 was obtained, generating a population estimate ($\hat N$) of 125 ± SE 21.8 tigers. The density of tigers in the area, including Churia and Barandabhar (buffer zone forest linked with mid hill forest), was estimated to be 4.5 ± SE 0.35 tigers per 100 km2, using a Bayesian spatially explicit capture–recapture model in SPACECAP. Our study showed the use of Churia by tigers and we therefore conclude that the Chitwan tiger population serves as a source to maintain tiger occupancy of the larger landscape that comprises Chitwan National Park, Parsa Wildlife Reserve, Barandabhar buffer zone, Someswor forest in Nepal and Valmiki Tiger Reserve in India.

Tigers are globally endangered and continue to decline due to poaching, prey depletion and habitat loss. In Nepal, tiger populations are fragmented and found mainly in four protected areas (PAs). To establish the use of standard methods, to assess the importance of prey availability and human disturbance on tiger presence and to assess tiger occupancy both inside and outside PAs, we conducted a tiger occupancy survey throughout the Terai Arc Landscape of Nepal. Our model-average estimate of the probability of tiger site occupancy was 0.366 [standard error (se) = 0.02, a 7% increase from the naive estimate] and the probability of detection estimate was 0.65 (se = 0.08) per 1 km searched. Modeled tiger site occupancy ranged from 0.04 (se = 0.05) in areas with a relatively lower prey base and higher human disturbance to 1 (se = 0 and 0.14) in areas with a higher prey base and lower human disturbance. We estimated tigers occupied just 5049 (se = 3) km2 (36%) of 13 915 km2 potential tiger habitat (forests and grasslands), and we detected sign in four of five key corridors linking PAs across Nepal and India, respectively indicating significant unoccupied areas likely suitable for tigers and substantial potential for tiger dispersal. To increase tiger populations and to promote long-term persistence in Nepal, otherwise suitable areas should be managed to increase prey and minimize human disturbance especially in critical corridors linking core tiger populations.

Summary 1. Several conservation initiatives are aiming to improve the status of the rapidly dwindling populations of tiger Panthera tigris. However, possible cascading effects of intra-guild competition on other sympatric carnivores are rarely considered while planning such recovery programmes. 2. In this study, we examine how, following the reduction of anthropogenic pressures by relocation of pastoralists, a recovering tiger population affects leopards Panthera pardus in the Chilla Range of Rajaji National Park (RNP), India. By combining data gathered over 4 years (2004–2005 to 2007–2008) on prey availability, food habits and population density of the two predators, we investigate some of the mechanisms of niche partitioning. 3. Based on existing information, we predicted that there would be high dietary overlap between the two predators. Over time, optimal habitats would be dominated by tigers forcing leopards to the periphery of the protected area where they would subsist on small prey and domestic livestock. Consequently, leopards would occur at a lower density where sympatric with tigers. 4. Our results confirmed that annual dietary overlap (0·89, 0·82, 0·78, 0·77) between the two predators was high during the study. As expected, we observed a shift in the diet of leopards towards a significantly higher intake of domestic prey (∼6·8% to ∼31·8%) and small prey (∼9% to ∼36%). Mean leopard density declined from 9·76 animals per 100 km2 in 2004–2005 to 2·07 per 100 km2 in 2007–2008, while the mean density of tigers increased from 3·31 per 100 km2 to 5·81 per 100 km2 over the same period. 5. Synthesis and applications. Although based on small sample sizes, our study revealed that over the 4 years following the relocation of pastoralists out of RNP, the tiger population recovered but leopard densities declined sharply. The concurrent shift in leopard diet indicated heightened livestock depredation from the surrounding area. Therefore, it is important that conservation initiatives targeting the recovery of tigers should be preceded by careful examination of interspecific interactions with sympatric carnivores. Comprehensive human–carnivore conflict management measures like monitoring the extent of livestock depredation, improving livestock management and providing adequate compensation and/or insurance schemes are critical for successfully implementing such conservation efforts.

In an unprecedented response to the rapid decline in wild tiger populations, the Heads of Government of the 13 tiger range countries endorsed the St. Petersburg Declaration in November 2010, pledging to double the wild tiger population. We conducted a landscape analysis of tiger habitat to determine if a recovery of such magnitude is possible. The reserves in 20 priority tiger landscapes can potentially support >10,000 tigers, almost thrice the current estimate. However, most core reserves where tigers breed are small and land-use change in rapidly developing Asia threatens to increase reserve and population isolation. Maintaining population viability and resilience will depend upon a landscape approach to manage tigers as metapopulations. Thus, both site-level protection and landscape-scale interventions to secure habitat corridors are simultaneous imperatives. Co-benefits, such as payment schemes for carbon and other ecosystem services, should be employed as strategies to mainstream landscape conservation in tiger habitat into development processes.

No abstract available

Most studies using photographic capture-recapture methodology estimate parameters of interest with ecological and sampling uncertainties. However, the effect of sampling effort on assumption violation and estimate precision has seldom been described using empirical data in studies estimating population size of tigers (Panthera tigris tigris). In this study, we evaluate the influence of trap effort (trap area, mean cell area and trap density) on the assumption of geographic closure and their relationship with estimated capture probability. We do this by subsampling capture histories obtained for tigers from 30 trapping stations within the Chilla range of Rajaji National Park, India. We assessed the importance of trapping effort on geographic closure by estimating fidelity ( $$ \overset{\lower0.5em\hbox{$\smash{\scriptscriptstyle\frown}$}}{F} $$ ) and immigration ( $$ \overset{\lower0.5em\hbox{$\smash{\scriptscriptstyle\frown}$}}{f} $$ ) under the Pradel model. Estimate precision (CV% [ $$ \hat{N} $$ ]) was evaluated based on estimates of capture probability ( $$ \hat{p} $$ ). Results of the Pradel analysis suggested that larger trap area (TA) ensured geographic closure, while high trap densities (TD) exhibited sex-specific heterogeneity in recapture probabilities p. Simulation results suggested a significant positive correlation between estimates of ( $$ \hat{p} $$ ) and TD. With increase in estimated capture probability, estimate precision (CV% [ $$ \hat{N} $$ ]) also improved sharply. Comparison of prior studies towards optimizing sampling strategies is often compromised due to the difference in scale and methods of sampling. Therefore, we urge that subsampling within a dataset as illustrated in our study may prove to be an advantageous step towards standardizing photographic capture-recapture sampling methodology for management objectives.

Presence of human settlements in most protected areas has forced tigers (Panthera tigris) to share space with humans. Creation of inviolate space for tigers in areas with high human densities is often daunting and requires hard political sacrifices. We conducted this study from 2004 to 2007 in the Chilla range of Rajaji National Park, along the northwestern portion of the Terai-Arc Landscape in the Indian subcontinent. Our objective was to document the recovery of prey and tiger populations following the resettlement of 193 gujjar (pastoralists with large buffalo holdings) families. We used distance sampling to estimate density of wild ungulate prey and camera traps to estimate tiger density. The study area supported ∼66 ungulates/km2, with chital (Axis axis) and sambar (Cervus unicolor) contributing >91%. While prey densities did not vary across 3 years, an increase in proportion of chital fawns was observed following the near complete removal of livestock. We also documented an increase in the density $$\left( {\hat D} \right)$$ of tigers (from three to five tigers per 100 km2), probably due to immigrating tigers from nearby Corbett Tiger Reserve. A high turnover of individual tigers was observed during the study. With photographic evidence of breeding tigers in Chilla range, we believe that this area could serve as a source population from where tigers can colonize adjoining forests across River Ganga. It is therefore concluded that securing the connectivity between forests on the east and west bank of Ganga through the tenuous Chilla-Motichur corridor assumes significance for long-term persistence of tigers within this landscape.