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Purpose This paper aims to assess the choice of supermarkets for purchasing fresh agricultural products among urban consumers in Ghana. Design/methodology/approach Likert scale was used to investigate reasons for purchasing agricultural products from supermarkets, while heteroskedastic probit was used to estimate the determinants. Beta regression was used to examine the determinants of the proportion of food expenditure on raw/unprocessed agricultural products. Findings The principal reasons for purchasing agricultural products from supermarkets are convenience, a guarantee of assorted products, high-quality products and food safety, constant supply of products, conducive shopping environment, excellent customer service and social influence. The probability of purchasing agricultural products from supermarkets is high for consumers who are either males, young, educated, high-income earners or salaried workers. Consumers residing closer to supermarkets have a greater probability of shopping for agricultural products from same. The proportion of food expenditure on unprocessed agricultural products increases with age but decreases with education and distance to local markets. Originality/value Few prior studies have investigated supermarket’s surge in developing countries and its connection with consumer food-outlet choice. Unfortunately, little is evident in the extant literature on consumers' choice of supermarkets as purchasing outlets for fresh agricultural products. Hence, this study closes the gap on consumers and fresh agricultural product purchases from supermarkets in Ghana. Results from the study will provide grounding evidence to supermarket owners to adjust their services to meet consumers’ needs and provide relevant information to evolving supermarkets or investors who may venture into the supermarket business on the attributes that influence consumers to use supermarkets as a purchasing outlet.

PurposeThe authors assessed the certification of street food retailers in Ghana in terms of awareness, training, willingness to be certified, determinants, agreement with certification requirements and impacts on performance.Design/methodology/approachPrimary data was sourced from 200 street food retailers. Descriptive statistics, Likert scale, mean comparison test, heteroskedastic probit, inverse-probability-weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA), inverse probability weights (IPW) and augmented inverse-probability weighting (AIPW) were applied.FindingsMost uncertified retailers were willing to be certified. Awareness about certification was high. Most of the certified retailers had been trained on certification, while most uncertified retailers had not been trained. Being a female, being educated, being a migrant vendor, possessing experience in retailing, training in certification, trust in the local certification process, the amount spent in preparing food and the number of customers are crucial variables that increase the probability of being certified among street food vendors. Street food retailers agreed to all the requirements for certification. Certification boosts the performance of street food retailers in terms of the number of customers and contracts received. Training on certification is recommended for street food retailers.Research limitations/implicationsThe limitation of this study is mainly due to the type of food retailers selected. Street food vending in Ghana is done among those who cook food for selling, those who sell processed products such as drinks and those who sell vegetables and other uncooked agriproducts. Meanwhile, the authors selected unorganised retailers who primarily cook local and regional dishes for sale in this study. Thus, the study did not include organised food retailers such as restaurants. Therefore, generalising the study results for street food vendors should be made with caution.Originality/valueSeveral studies have been conducted on street food retailing across the globe on knowledge of food-safety practices, risk practices, bacterial contamination of street retailing food, toxicological hazards of street foods and compliance with technical and hygienic requirements by street food retailers, among others. However, empirical studies on the certification/licensing of street food retailers and its impact have been given little attention. As a result, this study investigates the certification of street food retailers and its impacts on retailers' performance in Ghana.

Purpose This study aims to focus on the nexus between off-grid systems and impacts on islands and remote villages in Ghana by investigating the sources and cost of energy, willingness to pay for electricity and impacts of off-grid energy on the local economy, education, health, social activities, the environment and migration. Design/methodology/approach Data were obtained from 110 households; heterogeneous impact analysis of off-grid technologies, average treatment effect by inverse probability weights (IPW) and inverse probability weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA) models were used to analyse the data. Findings The sources of energy are gas, kerosene, wood fuel and dry-cell battery. All households in communities with neither electricity nor off-grid system were willing to pay for electricity. Households without off-grid systems (US$8.1) were willing to pay higher amounts per month for electricity. The off-grid technologies improve the local economy, social activities, security, the environment, education and health as well as reduce out-migration. Originality/value Most of the literature on mini-grid/off-grid systems have been from the engineering and the technical perspective, with a few on the socioeconomic impacts of the systems and consumer engagements. Besides, methods including descriptive statistics, energy technology sustainability framework and qualitative analysis were used in these studies. Nevertheless, the authors used a more rigorous method of the doubly robust inverse probability weighted regression adjustment model and a heterogeneous method to model the impact analysis of off-grid systems.

PurposeThe study assessed welfare of migrant and non-migrant labourers on cocoa farms in Ghana, using multidimensional poverty index (MPI) with four dimensions (education, health, dietary diversity, living standards) and 21 indicators. Specifically, we examined and compared non-monetary welfare of migrant and non-migrant labourers on cocoa farms in Ghana by adopting MPI approach. Also, we explored the factors affecting labourers' welfare.Design/methodology/approachA sample of 400 labourers was used. Qualitative and quantitative data were used. Quantile regression was used to investigate factors affecting labourers' deprivation in the different domains of non-monetary welfare.FindingsLabourers on cocoa farms are generally deprived in all the welfare indicators. Apart from having low education, labourers were underfed and lived under poor conditions. Though both migrants and non-migrants were multidimensionally poor, welfare of the later was higher than the former. Welfare of migrants and non-migrants on cocoa farms are influenced by similar factors: secondary occupation, income, credit accessibility, nature of contract and distance to social amenities.Research limitations/implicationsFor migrants, permanent status improves welfare. To improve labourers' welfare for enhanced productivity, cocoa farmers should provide permanent/long-term contracts for labourers and government should provide social amenities in cocoa-producing communities.Originality/valueMost previous welfare studies focused on farmers, with little attention paid to welfare of labourers on cocoa farms. We examined and compared the factors that affect migrant and non-migrant labourers' welfare on cocoa farms in Ghana. Moreover, we adopted the MPI (non-monetary) approach to assess labourers' welfare, instead of the expenditure and income approaches prevalent in literature.

PurposeThis paper examines the performance of smallholder rice farms established using improved planting technologies – broadcasting, dibbling and transplanting – under different production systems – rain-fed and irrigation – in Ghana.Design/methodology/approachUsing recent cross-sectional data of 200 smallholder rice farmers from the upper east region of Ghana, this study employed multinomial logit model and descriptive and inferential statistics for the analysis.FindingsThe results revealed that rice production under irrigation system contributes significantly to increasing farm productivity and profitability. Rice farmers who adopted dibbling and transplanting technologies under both irrigation and rain-fed production system obtained higher productivity and profitability than those who used broadcasting technology. Adoption of improved rice planting technologies by smallholder farmers is significantly influenced by education, farm size, improved rice varieties, sales outlets, hired labour and percentage of paddy sold.Research limitations/implicationsThe sample size is relatively small, even though findings are still very important in terms of policy formulation for improved smallholder farm performance in a developing country like Ghana.Practical implicationsThis study calls for collaborative efforts by government, donor agencies and NGOs to establish irrigation facilities and/or expand existing ones, increase sensitization and dissemination of improved planting technologies, as well as intensify the input subsidy programme in Ghana.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors knowledge, this is the first study that focuses on farmers' choice of rice planting technologies under irrigation and rain-fed production systems, and how these technologies impact on smallholder farm performance in Ghana.

PurposeThis study investigated consumers' satisfaction with local rice attributes and willingness to pay (WTP) for improvement by internal migrants and natives in urban Ghana.Design/methodology/approachPrimary data was sourced from 304 urban consumers and ordered probit regression was employed.FindingsUrban consumers had higher satisfaction with imported rice attributes than local rice. Consumers were unsatisfied with aroma, availability/accessibility, cleanliness, packaging, grain appearance, measurement standard, and taste of local rice. Moreover, 90% were willing to pay higher prices for local rice with improved attributes and WTP was higher among natives than migrants. Averagely, urban consumers are willing to pay 51% increase in market price of local rice if attributes were improved. Natives, males, educated, high-income, local rice consumption, shopping from supermarkets, trust in certification bodies, and dissatisfaction with local rice attributes boost WTP for improved local rice attributes.Research limitations/implicationsThere is a great market potential for local rice with improved attributes. Thus, there should be an improvement in local rice attributes and sold at moderate price and in supermarkets.Originality/valueWe compared consumers' satisfaction and WTP for improved local rice attributes among internal migrants and natives in urban Ghana.

PurposeThe authors investigated cocoa farmers' access to subsidized fertilizer in Ghana and implications on productivity.Design/methodology/approachPrimary data were sourced from 435 cocoa farmers. Cragg hurdle and two-step Tobit model with continuous endogenous regressors/covariates were applied for the drivers of cocoa farmers' participation in fertilizer subsidy programme and productivity. Propensity score matching (PSM), inverse-probability weights (IPW) and augmented inverse-probability weights (AIPW) were applied for productivity impact assessment of fertilizer subsidy.FindingsAll the farmers were aware of fertilizer subsidy for cocoa production in Ghana. Farmers became aware of fertilizer subsidy through extension officers, media and other farmers. Half of cocoa farmers benefitted from fertilizer subsidy. Averagely, cocoa farmers purchased 292 kg of subsidized fertilizer. Many socio-economic, farm-level characteristics and institutional factors determine cocoa farmers' participation in fertilizer subsidy programme, quantity of subsidized fertilizer obtained and productivity. Beneficiaries of fertilizer subsidy recorded higher cocoa productivity than non-beneficiaries. Hence, fertilizer subsidy for cocoa production in Ghana leads to a gain in productivity.Practical implicationsThere should be more investments in fertilizer subsidy so that all cocoa farmers benefit and obtain the required quantities.Originality/valueThe authors provide new evidence on cocoa productivity gain or loss emanating from fertilizer subsidy by combining different impact assessment techniques for deeper analysis: PSM, IPW and AIPW.

This paper examines coping strategies adopted by migrant labourers on cocoa farms in Southern Ghana in the face of food shortfalls. Using primary data from 400 labourers on cocoa farms, this paper employs coping strategy index, negative binomial, Tobit and multivariate probit regression models to investigate migrants’ food coping mechanisms, and their key determinants. Generally, migrants on cocoa farms were constrained with low quality food and limited food availability during certain periods of the year. Migrant labourers suffering from food shortfalls adopted food-compromising and income-maximizing coping strategies. The main strategies include consumption of less preferred foods and immature crops, borrowing of food and money, reduction in portion sizes during mealtimes, and reduction in the number of meals eaten per day. Farm labourers with higher education, income, secondary occupation, own farms, social capital, secured contract, work for multiple farmers, and asset ownership tended to cope better during periods of food shortfalls. The effects of these factors on the adoption of specific food coping strategies differed markedly. To improve household resilience in the face of food shortfalls, migrant labourers on cocoa farms should engage in secondary occupations, do their own farms, build social capital by joining faith-based organizations and tribal associations, as well as engage in long term contract arrangements with their principals.

PurposeThis study investigates implications of crop and income diversifications on consumption expenditure (welfare) of rice-producing households in Ghana. It further compares diversification by three rice production systems: two-season rain-fed, two-season irrigated and one-season rain-fed rice production.Design/methodology/approachPrimary data were sourced from 225 rice farmers. Margalef index and three-stage least-squares were employed.FindingsMajority of rice-farming households in Ghana diversify livelihoods. The extent of livelihood diversification differs among two-season rain-fed, two-season irrigated and one-season rain-fed rice-producing households. Credit, distance to district capitals, production purpose and number of farming seasons influence crop and income diversifications, and consumption expenditure of rice-producing households. While crop diversification reduces consumption expenditure, income diversification increases it. Crop and income diversifications positively influence each other. Consumption expenditure reduces crop diversification but increases income diversification.Practical implicationsPolicy should be directed towards the promotion of more livelihood activities to boost rice farmers' welfare. There should be awareness creation and training programmes to enable rice farmers realize different economic activities within and outside the agricultural value chain.Originality/valueCrop and income diversifications were measured as continuous response variables, unlike previous studies that used a binary response variable. The authors established a synergy among crop and income diversifications, and consumption expenditure (welfare). The authors further compared crop and income diversifications by three rice production systems: two-season rain-fed, two-season irrigated and one-season rain-fed rice production systems.

This study explores the causal association between organic and inorganic fertilizer application and vegetable productivity in Ghana. Primary data were obtained from 300 pepper, cabbage and lettuce producers. To correct for self-selection bias and endogeneity, Heckman selection and three-stage least-squares models were estimated. More producers used inorganic fertilizers for pepper, cabbage and lettuce production than those who used organic fertilizers. Vegetable producers applied higher quantities of organic fertilizers (2830 kg) per acre than inorganic fertilizers (880 kg). Organic cabbage and lettuce producers recorded higher productivity than inorganic producers, but inorganic pepper producers had higher productivity than organic producers. However, vegetable producers who applied either organic or inorganic fertilizers, or both, recorded higher productivity than those who did not apply fertilizer. Factors that enhance the application of organic and inorganic fertilizers and vegetable productivity are education, farm size and production for export, land ownership, farmer association membership and perception about fertilizer price. Organic and inorganic fertilizer application improves vegetable productivity, and productivity promotes fertilizer application. Private agencies and government should subsidize fertilizers, improve producers' access to agricultural information, and train producers on productivity-enhancing agronomic practices.

This study assesses perceptions, determinants, and constraints of ‘Asaasenufosuo’ organic fertilizer adoption by cocoa farmers in Ghana. Primary data were sourced from 200 cocoa farmers. Perception...

PurposeWith the empirical evidence on the purchase behaviour of tinned tomatoes, food labelling and the safety consciousness of consumers in Ghana were examined.Design/methodology/approachPrimary data were obtained from 130 consumers. Descriptive statistics, factor analysis and multinomial probit analysis were applied.FindingsConsumers use tinned tomatoes for cooking because of its easy accessibility in nearby shops, guaranteed constant supply, attractive package, it being affordable/cheaper, its better colour, advertisement/promotion, and longer shelf life. There is a low level of food safety consciousness among consumers since only one-fifth read labels on tinned tomatoes very often, and one-fifth do not read labels at all. Consumers frequently check on tinned tomatoes' most essential information: brand/type, manufacturing and expiry dates, and weight/volume. Age, residential status, contact information, nutritional benefits and affordability influence the choice of retail brand of tinned tomatoes. The health label consumer segment and conventional label consumer segment were identified, with the majority being the former.Research limitations/implicationsThe sample size used for the study could be improved in terms of number and geographical coverage. This is because the study was limited to only one main urbanised area in Ghana. Therefore, it will be worthwhile for a further study to be conducted by comparing urban and rural consumers in Ghana and other countries within Africa, to either validate or reveal a different trajectory of consumer behaviour relevant to marketing, policy and practice.Originality/valueTomato paste (tinned tomatoes) is consumed in almost all homes in Africa, but there are food scare concerns about tinned tomatoes due to reported cases of adulteration with unhealthy materials such as starch and food colour, leading to negative health implications on consumers. This makes the reading of tinned tomato labels very crucial. Thus, it is of policy relevance to investigate consumers' reading behaviour of label information on tinned tomatoes in Ghana. However, previous studies on food labelling focussed on food and nutrition labelling and implications of food labelling on consumers' purchase behaviour, with most of them outside Africa.

PurposePoor working conditions among migrant labourers on cocoa farms may be commonplace. This could affect labour productivity and cocoa industry performance. The paper investigates migrants' satisfaction with working conditions on cocoa farms in Ghana and the key drivers of satisfaction.Design/methodology/approachThe study employed a five-point Likert scale to evaluate migrants' satisfaction with remuneration, working hours, welfare, health and safety, contract and freedom. Using primary data from 400 migrants and non-migrants in four cocoa districts, multivariate probit regression was employed to evaluate the determinants of satisfaction with working conditions.FindingsMigrant labourers are generally satisfied with their working hours, nature of contract and freedom they enjoy. However, they are unsatisfied with their remuneration, welfare and health/safety conditions on cocoa farms. All things being equal, secondary occupation, nature of contract, number of farmers served by labourer, annual earnings, farm ownership, education and expectations before migration influence migrants' satisfaction with working conditions.Practical implicationsTo improve satisfaction with working conditions and productivity, migrants on cocoa farms should be given protective working gear, long-term or renewable contracts and they should be encouraged to engage in secondary occupations.Originality/valueUnlike previous studies that focussed on working conditions in the formal sector, this study explores migrants' satisfaction with working conditions in the informal agricultural sector. Also, the study examines labourers' satisfaction with six subcomponents of working conditions compared to previous studies that employed a univariate analytical approach to examine working conditions.

A survey of 200 migrant labourers was conducted to explore whether labour migration for cocoa production in Ghana translates into greater social benefits using the net social benefit criterion. Maj...

Most emerging economies and the South American Countries are no exception to the negative consequences of trade-off between economic growth and environmental sustainability decisions. This study draws strength from the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs-7, 11, 12, and 13). Therefore, this study examines the environmental nexus between economic growth, globalization, renewable, and non-renewable energy, in South America from 1995 to 2020. We deployed the pooled mean group (PMG), mean group (MG), and dynamic fixed effects (DFE). Cross-sectional dependence, panel unit root, and cointegration tests were performed. Finally, we used the Dumitrescu and Hurlin test of causality to determine the long-run association between variables. The finding indicates that while environmental pollution increases with increasing economic growth, it decreases with increasing renewable energy both in the short and long term. Whereas economic globalization positively affects environmental pollution in the long term, social globalization and the moderation effect between political globalization and renewable energy improves environmental quality in the long run. Finally, a bidirectional causality was found between economic growth and environmental pollution, with a unidirectional causality running from economic, political, and social globalization, renewable, and non-renewable energy to environmental pollution. Given these findings, we discussed potential policy measures.

The adoption of improved agricultural production technologies can be an appropriate approach in meeting the demand for vegetables. Indigenous and exotic vegetable farmers were selected for comparis...

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine how consumers’ concern for food safety and income levels influence vegetable consumption patterns and expenditure in Tamale, Ghana. Design/methodology/approach Using data from a survey of 300 urban consumers, quantile regression analyses are used to examine how food safety consciousness, income and other factors influence vegetable expenditure across different quantiles. Findings Whereas protein-rich foods take smaller proportion, vegetables and cereals take more than half of the household food budget. Poor households spend greater proportion of income on food relative to wealthier households, although absolute amounts spent on food takes the opposite direction. Engel’s law applies to composite food expenditure and individual food classes. Bennett’s law applies to various food groups, with high-income households showing high dietary diversity than middle- and low-income households. Food safety consciousness and income groupings significantly influence vegetable expenditure at various quantiles. Expenditure of food safety conscious and high-income consumers are positioned on higher quantiles. Research limitations/implications The findings suggest a potential for agribusiness investors to develop safer vegetable niche markets in the study area. Originality/value The study is the first to analyze vegetable consumption in Ghana with a focus on food safety consciousness, income levels and consumers’ location.

Глобальное стремление к экономическому развитию привело к увеличению выбросов углекислого газа, объем которых различается в странах с высоким и низким уровнем дохода вследствие различной интенсивности. В настоящей статье на основе панельных данных за период с 1960 г. по 2018 г., опубликованных Всемирным банком, рассматривается взаимосвязь показателей населения, валового внутреннего продукта (ВВП) и возобновляемых источников энергии и выбросов CO2 в странах с высоким и низким уровнем доходов. Для достижения поставленной цели были использованы такие методы, как тест на кросс-зависимость Песарана, тест на единичный корень Левина - Лина- Чу, тест Вальда на причинность Грейнджера, регрессии с фиксированными и случайными эффектами. Выявлено, что объем выбросов CO2 в значительной мере зависит от населения, объема ВВП и потребления энергии. Результаты теста Вальда на причинность Грейнджера, а также регрессии с фиксированными эффектами и случайными эффектами показали, что рост населения и ВВП напрямую влияет на выбросы CO2 в странах как с высоким, так и с низким доходом, тогда как влияние потребления возобновляемой энергии имеет косвенный характер. Несмотря на отсутствие различий в направлениях корреляции, были выявлены различия в масштабах взаимосвязи в странах с высоким и низким уровнем доходов. Влияние населения и потребления возобновляемых источников энергии на выбросы CO2 в странах с низкими доходами больше, чем в странах с высокими доходами. Влияние ВВП на выбросы CO2 выше в странах с высоким уровнем доходов, нежели в странах с низким уровнем. Таким образом, чтобы сократить выбросы CO, представителям власти следует принимать экономические и демографически меры для снижения уровня выбросов углерода. The quest to achieve economic development worldwide has increased carbon dioxide (COJ emissions, which could vary in high- and low-income economies due to differences in economic activities. Using empirical evidence from the panel data for the period 1960-2018 obtained from the World Bank, we investigate differences in the impact of population, gross domestic product (GDP), and renewable energy on CO2 emissions in high- and low-income economies. For that purpose, we applied the Pesaran cross-sectional dependence test (for cross-sectional dependence), Levin-Lin-Chu unit root test (for Unit roots), Granger causality Wald test (for the possibility of Granger causality among the variables), fixed-effects and random-effects regressions. We established that population, GDP and energy consumption considerably influence CO2 emissions. Results of the Granger causality Wald test, fixed-effects and random-effects regressions clearly demonstrated that growth in population and GDP directly correlates with CO2 emissions in high- and low-in-come economies, while renewable energy consumption has an indirect correlation. While there are no differences in terms of directions, we revealed differences in the magnitude in high- and low-income economies. The impact of population and renewable energy consumption on CO2 emissions in low-income economies is greater than that of high-income economies. The impact of GDP on CO2 emissions is greater in high-income economies than in low-income economies. Thus, to reduce CO2 emissions, policy makers should promote low carbon emission economic activities and implement population control measures.

(2019). RETRACTED ARTICLE: Determinants of consumer willingness to pay for certified safe vegetables. International Journal of Vegetable Science: Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 95-107.

CONTEXT The impacts of climate change on soil water content and the resultant effects on agricultural productivity have raised a lot of concerns among cocoa farmers. This has rendered cocoa production a risky business. This makes soil water conservation practices crucial in cocoa production. Nonetheless, its adoption as a means to mitigate the adverse corollaries of climate change might be low in developing countries like Ghana. OBJECTIVE Our study focuses on soil water conservation practices carried out by cocoa farmers in Ghana to cope with climate change, its impact on productivity, and the determinants. METHODS We compiled primary data from 400 cocoa farmers. Due to potential inter-causal relationship between soil water conservation and productivity, we applied the three-stage least-squares and two-step Tobit with endogenous regressors. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS The study found that 97% of cocoa farmers carry out soil water conservation practices as a coping strategy for climate change. These are application of organic fertilizers, mulching, planting of leguminous crops, retention of trees, and planting of shade trees. On average, cocoa farmers carry out two of these practices. The study revealed that cocoa productivity is directly associated with soil water conservation practices. Additionally, the number of soil water conservation practices carried out by cocoa farmers increases with farm size, leasehold/individual land ownership, age of cocoa farm, income, farm management training, and government support. Also, cocoa productivity increases with income, association membership, farm management training, access to agricultural information, and soil fertility, but reduces with farm size. SIGNIFICANCE We delved deeper into the various soil water conservation practices adopted by cocoa farmers in Ghana to minimize the negative repercussions of climate change. The findings are relevant in understanding how cocoa farmers conserve soil moisture under the current climate dispensation as well as the inter-causal synergy between soil water conservation and cocoa productivity. We provide recommendations for policy- and decision-makers on soil water conservation practices to enhance productivity in the cocoa sector. These include organization of farm management training programmes by government, non-governmental organizations, and other stakeholders for cocoa farmers. Also, there is the need to support cocoa farmers with input subsidies and climate change information.

In Northern Ghana, local leafy vegetables marketing has become an important trade in Ghana due to the increasing application of the health benefits from consuming local leafy vegetable. It was theorized that marketing margins (temporal arbitrage) may not encourage marketing agents to undertake and facilitate trade in the local leafy vegetable marketing chain. This hypothesis is investigated by using data collected from 80 traders randomly sampled from three markets in the Tamale Metropolis. The major marketing channels identified are from farmers to wholesalers through retailers to the final consumers. The sale of leafy vegetables directly from farmers to consumers and food vendors were also recorded. Despite incurring higher marketing cost, wholesalers had higher net returns (GH₵74 per 146 kg and GH₵73 per 10 kg per week in the dry and wet seasons respectively) than retailers (who had GH₵29 per 70 kg and GH₵9 per 55 kg per week respectively in the dry and wet seasons). Though the marketing of local leafy vegetables in the study area was inefficient, the benefit-cost ratio showed that, it is profitable. The authors recommend that, farmers and traders should form co-operatives to enable them bargain for prices, obtain loans and purchase storage facilities as groups. Also, fundamental problems of perishability among traders must be addressed. Key words: Local leafy vegetables, wet season, dry season, marketing margins, net returns, marketing efficiency and Tamale Metropolis.

Climate change poses a serious threat to many farmers' yield and income. Previous studies often applied a general approach to examine climate change mitigation strategies implemented by farmers. Our study focuses on income diversification of cocoa farmers in Ghana as a strategy to cope with climate change. We compiled data from 400 cocoa farmers, and applied a Heckman two-step regression to investigate the probability and extent of cocoa farm income diversification. Further, we used beta regression to determine the share of annual farm income generated by diversification. Most cocoa farmers in our study region diversify farm income as a strategy to reduce climate change impacts. These strategies comprise crop and livestock diversification, intercropping of cocoa farms, provision of labour for other farmers, and agricultural-related economic off-farm activities. Factors that influence income diversification include the age of the farm, access to credits, extension contacts, the information sources on climate change, and government support. The study provides recommendations for policy- and decision-makers to enhance diversification strategies in the country's cocoa sector. These include the provision of financial credits, farm input subsidies, and farmers' training on farm management.

This paper examines the socioeconomic determinants of farmer livelihood diversification and its effects on welfare. We selected 184 farmers in the Wa West District of the Upper West Region of Ghana through a comprehensive, multistage process based on agro-ecological, engineering, and socioeconomic resilience/vulnerability profiles. A simultaneous equation model was estimated using the two-stage least squares method. The results suggest that the number of livelihood activities is highest for female farmers, relatively young farmers, farmers with little or no formal education, farmers with large families, and richer/wealthier farmers. On the other hand, welfare is highest for older farmers, female farmers, farmers with little or no formal education, farmers with small family size, and farmers with higher number of livelihood activities. Thus, despite the fact that younger and large-sized families engage in more livelihood activities, they have relatively low welfare. Therefore, these categories of farmers should be targeted for policy interventions. However, in general, we recommend the promotion of more livelihood activities to increase the welfare of farmers. These livelihood activities should not be vulnerable to the adverse effects of climatic factors.