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Norm enforcement may be important for resolving conflicts and promoting cooperation. However, little is known about how preferred responses to norm violations vary across cultures and across domains. In a preregistered study of 57 countries (using convenience samples of 22,863 students and non-students), we measured perceptions of the appropriateness of various responses to a violation of a cooperative norm and to atypical social behaviors. Our findings highlight both cultural universals and cultural variation. We find a universal negative relation between appropriateness ratings of norm violations and appropriateness ratings of responses in the form of confrontation, social ostracism and gossip. Moreover, we find the country variation in the appropriateness of sanctions to be consistent across different norm violations but not across different sanctions. Specifically, in those countries where use of physical confrontation and social ostracism is rated as less appropriate, gossip is rated as more appropriate. Little is known about people's preferred responses to norm violations across countries. Here, in a study of 57 countries, the authors highlight cultural similarities and differences in people's perception of the appropriateness of norm violations., Swedish Foundation for Humanities and Social Sciences; Riksbankens Jubileumsfond; Czech Science Foundation; Czech Academy of Sciences; Institute of Psychology; Stockholm University

Norm enforcement may be important for resolving conflicts and promoting cooperation. However, little is known about how preferred responses to norm violations vary across cultures and across domains. In a preregistered study of 57 countries (using convenience samples of 22,863 students and non-students), we measured perceptions of the appropriateness of various responses to a violation of a cooperative norm and to atypical social behaviors. Our findings highlight both cultural universals and cultural variation. We find a universal negative relation between appropriateness ratings of norm violations and appropriateness ratings of responses in the form of confrontation, social ostracism and gossip. Moreover, we find the country variation in the appropriateness of sanctions to be consistent across different norm violations but not across different sanctions. Specifically, in those countries where use of physical confrontation and social ostracism is rated as less appropriate, gossip is rated as more appropriate.

Firms compete with each other in numerous ways, but particularly interesting are the various ways in which they respond to competitive threats to their critical assets and operations. Firms may mount vigorous defenses, or they may launch offensive strategies—by some definitions perhaps even predatory—or they may do nothing at all. This paper takes a selective empirical approach to analyzing such actions. We examine one industry—airlines—and two carriers—United and US Airways—and analyze their price and capacity strategies when confronted by entry on specific routes or by certain rivals. This approach limits exogenous variation while offering insights into the determinants of incumbents’ strategies, such as the identity of the entrant, the likely prospects for driving it out, the nature of airport or route competition, and so forth.

Using unique data from a systematic roll-out of broadband infrastructure in rural areas, we provide evidence on the impact of high-speed internet via broadband on three main sectors of economy: retail, agriculture, and manufacturing. Our instrumental variable model, which relies upon the timing of the roll-out at the first stage, shows that in general broadband access does not foster economic growth, but positively affects the retail sector, with no effect on the manufacturing and agricultural sectors. We also find that the biggest effects are found for speeds below 10 Mbps. We supplement our findings by exploring potential mechanisms that could drive the results.

Using exogenous changes in the personal bankruptcy treatment of student loans as well as the level of student debt, we find that student debt has a negative effect on household retirement savings. This negative relation is present for younger and older individuals, and is larger for the latter group, indicating lower levels of retirement savings for precisely those who can least afford it. We also find that student debt is related to greater borrowing on retirement plans. Households with more student debt expect to have insufficient retirement income and are less able to plan financially for the long term.

To slow the spread of COVID-19, the state of emergency was announced in Kazakhstan on March 16, 2020. Ust-Kamenogorsk instituted COVID-19 lockdown measures on April 2, 2020. The restrictions reduced the flow of traffic in the city but did not have a major impact on the large industries and power plants. In the areas with a complex profile of emission sources, traffic restriction measures alone may hardly tackle serious air pollution. This natural experiment allowed us to test how the reduction in transport movement affects air quality in Ust-Kamenogorsk, as there is a tendency to hold transport as being a major cause of air pollution in Ust-Kamenogorsk. This study analyzes concentrations of four major air pollutants and meteorological parameters in Ust-Kamenogorsk from March 1 to May 15 in 2016–2020. Using the fixed effects model, we find that restrictions have decreased the levels of CO by 21–23 percent, increased the levels of TSP by 13–21 percent, and had no significant effect on SO2 and NO2 concentrations in the city. It implies that heavy pollution in the city with SO2, NO2, TSP are mainly caused by non-transportrelated sources. © The Author(s).

Using data from the Survey of Consumer Finances (SCF), we find that student debt is negatively related to the extent of investment in risky financial assets by households. An exogenous shock to student debt due to the Higher Education Amendments of 1992 negatively impacts portfolio risk-taking for students already in four-year college at the time of this regulation. Households with significant student debt are more likely to fall behind on their student debt payments when they have significant personal financial portfolio risk. Our evidence also suggests that student debt reduces the frequency of trades by households. Further, the negative relation between student debt and personal portfolio risk-taking is stronger for more financially constrained households. Our evidence indicates that student debt may reduce investment in risky assets, thus affecting the long-term wealth of individuals, and may also have repercussions for the broader economy.