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Three populations of neurons expressing the vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (Vglut2) were recently described in the A10 area of the mouse midbrain, of which two populations were shown to express the gene encoding, the rate-limiting enzyme for catecholamine synthesis, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH).One of these populations ("TH-Vglut2 Class1") also expressed the dopamine transporter (DAT) gene while one did not ("TH-Vglut2 Class2"), and the remaining population did not express TH at all ("Vglut2-only"). TH is known to be expressed by a promoter which shows two phases of activation, a transient one early during embryonal development, and a later one which gives rise to stable endogenous expression of the TH gene. The transient phase is, however, not specific to catecholaminergic neurons, a feature taken to advantage here as it enabled Vglut2 gene targeting within all three A10 populations expressing this gene, thus creating a new conditional knockout. These knockout mice showed impairment in spatial memory function. Electrophysiological analyses revealed a profound alteration of oscillatory activity in the CA3 region of the hippocampus. In addition to identifying a novel role for Vglut2 in hippocampus function, this study points to the need for improved genetic tools for targeting of the diversity of subpopulations of the A10 area.

Background: The neuromodulatory transmitters, biogenic amines, have profound effects on multiple neurons and are essential for normal behavior and mental health. Here we report that the orphan transporter SLC10A4, which in the brain is exclusively expressed in presynaptic vesicles of monoaminergic and cholinergic neurons, has a regulatory role in dopamine homeostasis., Methods: We used a combination of molecular and behavioral analyses, pharmacology, and in vivo amperometry to assess the role of SLC10A4 in dopamine-regulated behaviors., Results: We show that SLC10A4 is localized on the same synaptic vesicles as either vesicular acetylcholine transporter or vesicular monoamine transporter 2. We did not find evidence for direct transport of dopamine by SLC10A4; however, synaptic vesicle preparations lacking SLC10A4 showed decreased dopamine vesicular uptake efficiency. Furthermore, we observed an increased acidification in synaptic vesicles isolated from mice overexpressing SLC10A4. Loss of SLC10A4 in mice resulted in reduced striatal serotonin, noradrenaline, and dopamine concentrations and a significantly higher dopamine turnover ratio. Absence of SLC10A4 led to slower dopamine clearance rates in vivo, which resulted in accumulation of extracellular dopamine. Finally, whereas SLC10A4 null mutant mice were slightly hypoactive, they displayed hypersensitivity to administration of amphetamine and tranylcypromine., Conclusions: Our results demonstrate that SLC10A4 is a vesicular monoaminergic and cholinergic associated transporter that is important for dopamine homeostasis and neuromodulation in vivo. The discovery of SLC10A4 and its role in dopaminergic signaling reveals a novel mechanism for neuromodulation and represents an unexplored target for the treatment of neurological and mental disorders., (Copyright © 2015 Society of Biological Psychiatry. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The "One neuron-one neurotransmitter" concept has been challenged frequently during the last three decades, and the coexistence of neurotransmitters in individual neurons is now regarded as a common phenomenon. The functional significance of neurotransmitter coexistence is, however, less well understood. Several studies have shown that a subpopulation of dopamine (DA) neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) expresses the vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (VGLUT2) and has been suggested to use glutamate as a cotransmitter. The VTA dopamine neurons project to limbic structures including the nucleus accumbens, and are involved in mediating the motivational and locomotor activating effects of psychostimulants. To determine the functional role of glutamate cotransmission by these neurons, we deleted VGLUT2 in DA neurons by using a conditional gene-targeting approach in mice. A DAT-Cre/Vglut2Lox mouse line (Vglut2(f/f;DAT-Cre) mice) was produced and analyzed by in vivo amperometry as well as by several behavioral paradigms. Although basal motor function was normal in the Vglut2(f/f;DAT-Cre) mice, their risk-taking behavior was altered. Interestingly, in both home-cage and novel environments, the gene targeted mice showed a greatly blunted locomotor response to the psychostimulant amphetamine, which acts via the midbrain DA system. Our results show that VGLUT2 expression in DA neurons is required for normal emotional reactivity as well as for psychostimulant-mediated behavioral activation.

Elite athletes, body builders and adolescents misuse anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) in order to increase muscle mass or to enhance physical endurance and braveness. The high doses misused are associated with numerous adverse effects. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of chronic supratherapeutic AAS treatment on circulating hormones and gene expression in peripheral tissues related to such adverse effects. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to measure expression levels of in total 37 genes (including peptide hormones, cell membrane receptors, nuclear receptors, steroid synthesising enzymes and other enzymes) in the pituitary, testes, adrenals, adipose tissue, kidneys and liver of male Sprague-Dawley rats after 14-day administration of the AAS nandrolone decanoate, 3 or 15 mg/kg. Plasma glucose and levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), adiponectin, corticosterone, ghrelin, insulin and leptin were also measured. We found several expected effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, while the treatment also caused a number of other not previously identified changes in circulating factors and gene transcription levels such as the dose-dependent reduction of the beta(3)-adrenergic receptor in adipose tissue, reduction of both circulating and mRNA levels of adiponectin, up-regulation of both hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA-reductase, the rate-limiting enzyme in de novo synthesis of cholesterol, and the receptor for ACTH in the adrenals. The results provide evidence for wide ranging effects of AAS on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, adipose tissue and substrates of the renal control of blood pressure.

The abuse of anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) at supratherapeutic doses is a problem not only in the world of sports, but also among non-athletes using AASs to improve physical appearance and to become more bold and courageous. Investigations of the possible neurochemical effects of AAS have focused partially on the monoaminergic systems, which are involved in aggressive behaviours and the development of drug dependence. In the present study, we administered nandrolone decanoate (3 or 15 mg/kg/day for 14 days) and measured mRNA expression of dopaminergic and serotonergic receptors, transporters and enzymes in the male rat brain using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Expression of the dopamine D1-receptor transcript was elevated in the amygdala and decreased in the hippocampus while the transcript level of the dopamine D4-receptor was increased in the nucleus accumbens. No changes in transcriptional levels were detected among the serotonin-related genes examined in this study. The altered mRNA expression of the dopamine receptors may contribute to some of the behavioural changes often reported in AAS abusers of increased impulsivity, aggression and drug-seeking.

Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are known as doping agents within sports and body-building, but are currently also abused by other groups in society in order to promote increased courage and aggression. We previously showed that 14 days of daily intramuscular injections of the AAS nandrolone decanoate (15 mg/kg) reduced the extracellular levels of the dopaminergic metabolites 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and homovanillic acid (HVA) in the nucleus accumbens shell using microdialysis. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the same dose regimen of nandrolone decanoate may affect the activities of the dopamine-metabolizing enzymes monoamine oxidases A and B (MAO-A and MAO-B). A radiometric assay was used to determine the activities of MAO-A and MAO-B in rat brain tissues after 14 days of daily i.m. nandrolone decanoate injections at the doses 3 and 15 mg/kg. Gene transcript contents of MAO-A, MAO-B and cathecol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) were measured with quantitative real-time reverse transcription PCR. 3 mg/kg of nandrolone decanoate significantly reduced the activity of both MAO-A and -B in the caudate putamen. 15 mg/kg of nandrolone decanoate significantly reduced the activity of MAO-A in the amygdala and increased the gene transcript level of MAO-B in the substantia nigra. In conclusion, imbalanced MAO activities may contribute to explain the impulsive and aggressive behaviour often described in AAS abusers. The reduced MAO activities observed are in line with our previously presented findings of decreased extracellular levels of DOPAC and HVA in the rat brain, indicating decreased monoaminergic activity following repeated AAS administration.

Activation of the NMDA receptor leads to increased intracellular Ca2+ levels ([Ca2+]i) which induces outgrowth of and morphologic changes in the neurites of the NG108-15 cell line. This effect can be blocked by antagonists for this glutamate receptor subtype (e.g. ifenprodil or AP5). We have previously shown that nanomolar concentrations of various neurosteroids modulate ifenprodil binding to the NMDA receptor. To investigate whether this interaction affects the functioning of the receptor, we studied the effect of 24 and 48 h of pregnenolone sulphate (PS) or pregnanolone sulphate (3alpha5betaS) on glutamate-stimulated NG108-15 cells. Unexpectedly, the neurosteroids themselves had an inhibitory effect on glutamate-induced changes in neurite patterns. This effect was comparable to that of ifenprodil or AP5. Moreover, the effect of combined treatment with 3alpha5betaS and ifenprodil on neurite morphology indicated a functional interaction between the substances. Interestingly, PS induced cell detachment over time, an effect that was further enhanced by ifenprodil. Cell detachment was also seen after 48 h of treatment with 3alpha5betaS; however, the effect was blocked by ifenprodil and weaker than that of PS. The interaction with the NR2B-selective antagonist ifenprodil indicates that this NMDA receptor subunit may be involved in neurosteroid-induced NG108-15 cell detachment.

Associated with acts of violence and polydrug use, abuse of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) is an increasing problem in society. The aim of the present study was to elucidate whether sub-chronic treatment with the AAS nandrolone decanoate affects dopamine release and dopamine metabolism in the rat nucleus accumbens shell, before and after an amphetamine challenge. Male Sprague-Dawley rats received daily i.m. injections of nandrolone decanoate (15 mg/kg) or vehicle for 14 days. On day 15, the animals were anaesthetized and a microdialysis probe was implanted into the nucleus accumbens shell. Extracellular fluid was collected 1h before and 3h after a single amphetamine injection (5 mg/kg). The samples were then analyzed regarding the content of dopamine, and its metabolites 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and homovanillic acid (HVA), using HPLC with electrochemical detection. Two weeks of nandrolone decanoate administration caused a significant decrease of the basal DOPAC and HVA levels, which remained low during the first hour following the amphetamine challenge. Dopamine levels did not differ significantly between groups, neither after the nandrolone pre-treatment nor the amphetamine challenge. In conclusion, these novel findings indicate that AAS alter the metabolism of dopamine in a brain region involved in the development of drug dependence.