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From February 1 to 28, 2018, the Austrian Space Forum, in cooperation with the Oman Astronomical Society and research teams from 25 nations, conducted the AMADEE-18 mission, a human-robotic Mars expedition simulation in the Dhofar region in the Sultanate of Oman. A carefully selected field crew, supported by a Mission Support Center in Innsbruck, Austria, conducted 19 experiments relevant to astrobiology, engineering disciplines, geoscience, operations research, and human factors. This expedition was the 12th in a series of analog missions that emulate selected aspects of the science expected for a human Mars mission, including the characterization of the (paleo)geological environment, human factors studies, and the search for biomarkers. In particular, an Exploration Cascade was deployed as a suggested workflow for coordinating the timing and location of the respective instruments and experiments. In validation of this workflow, the decision-making interaction between the field and the Mission Support Center was studied. This article introduces the AMADEE-18 mission and provides the mission-specific context for the other contributions of this special issue.

Mountain landscapes provide a variety of cultural ecosystem services (CES), but recent developments such as land-use and climate changes, population growth or urbanization seem to lead more frequently to conflicts among users or restrict the use of natural resources. An enhanced understanding of such conflicts and limitations may improve decision-making and management of mountain landscapes and maintain high levels of CES supply. However, conceptual and empirical research on identifying and evaluating conflicts and limitations of use in qualitative, quantitative and spatial terms as well as interdependencies in socio-ecological systems (SES) is still rare, and suitable methods are underdeveloped. Therefore, this paper elaborates the outcomes of an expert workshop and presents eleven case studies related to different CES and various contexts to conceptualise conflicts and limitations of CES use in mountain regions, complemented by assessment approaches to facilitate their identification and management. Using a multidimensional framework, we find that conflicts were mostly related to socio-economic changes and an increasing recreational use, whereas limitations of use greatly depended on accessibility and legal issues. Our findings contribute to the advancement of research on CES and are particularly useful for landscape management and decision-making to develop sustainable solutions and maintain CES in mountain landscapes.

We investigated the interactions of air and snow over one entire winter accumulation period as well as the importance of chemical markers in a pristine free-tropospheric environment to explain variation in a microbiological dataset. To overcome the limitations of short term bioaerosol sampling, we sampled the atmosphere continuously onto quartzfiber air filters using a DIGITEL high volume PM10 sampler. The bacterial and fungal communities, sequenced using Illumina MiSeq, as well as the chemical components of the atmosphere were compared to those of a late season snow profile. Results reveal strong dynamics in the composition of bacterial and fungal communities in air and snow. In fall the two compartments were similar, suggesting a strong interaction between them. The overlap diminished as the season progressed due to an evolution within the snowpack throughout winter and spring. Certain bacterial and fungal genera were only detected in air samples, which implies that a distinct air microbiome might exist. These organisms are likely not incorporated in clouds and thus not precipitated or scavenged in snow. Although snow appears to be seeded by the atmosphere, both air and snow showed differing bacterial and fungal communities and chemical composition. Season and alpha diversity were major drivers for microbial variability in snow and air, and only a few chemical markers were identified as important in explaining microbial diversity. Air microbial community variation was more related to chemical markers than snow microbial composition. For air microbial communities Cl–, TC/OC, SO42–, Mg2+, and Fe/Al, all compounds related to dust or anthropogenic activities, were identified as related to bacterial variability while dust related Ca2+was significant in snow. The only common driver for snow and air was SO42–, a tracer for anthropogenic sources. The occurrence of chemical compounds was coupled with boundary layer injections in the free troposphere (FT). Boundary layer injections also caused the observed variations in community composition and chemistry between the two compartments. Long-term monitoring is required for a more valid insight in post-depositional selection in snow.

Primary biological aerosols are transported over large distances, are traveling in various media such as dry air masses, clouds or fog, and eventually deposited with dry deposition, especially for larger particles, or precipitation like rain, hail or snow. To investigate relative abundance and diversity of airborne bacterial and fungal communities, samples have been collected with a liquid impinger (Coriolis μ) from the top of Mount Sonnblick (3106 m asl, Austrian Alps) from the respective sources under a temporal aspect over four seasons over the year to include all climatic conditions. Bacterial and fungal samples (16S rRNA and ITS) were sequenced using Illumina MiSeq paired-end sequencing, investigated for relative abundance by qPCR(16S rRNA and 18S rRNA) and ice nucleation activity. Results show that there is no stable free tropospheric air microbial community and air mass origin was different for the four sampling periods which exerted influence on the microbial composition of the atmosphere although a core microbiome could be identified consisting of 61 bacterial OTUs and eight fungal genera. Differentiation between seasons was stronger pronounced in air than in precipitation, with rain being most different and variable of precipitation types, indicating distinct forces driving microbial fate in the air. Microorganisms precipitated with snow, hail or rain or being transported by clouds differ in their species composition from free tropospheric air masses and do not mirror the air community structure. They were more diverse, distinct in composition, 16S:18S ratio and abundance from free-floating PBA. Hence, snow or cloud samples are not suitable proxies for free tropospheric air microbiome composition, since separation processes in aerosolization, transport and scavenging occur. The microbial composition of arriving precipitation or clouds represents only a part of the microbial air composition communities of the cumulative sources of origin. Relative abundance and composition of ice nucleation-active bacteria showed a higher share of relative % reads of known ice nucleation-active bacteria present in all wet phases compared to air. Results propose a separation of IN-active reads with higher shares occurring in precipitation. This study presents the first comparison of free tropospheric bacterial and fungal abundance and diversity in time

Global warming affects microbial communities in a variety of ecosystems, especially cryospheric habitats. However, little is known about microbial-mediated carbon fluxes in extreme environments. Hence, the methodology of sample acquisition described in the very few studies available implies two major problems: A) high resolution data require a large number of samples, which is difficult to obtain in remote areas; B) unavoidable sample manipulation such as cutting, sawing, and melting of ice cores that leads to a misunderstanding of in situ conditions. In this study, a prototype device that requires neither sample preparation nor sample destruction is presented. The device can be used for in situ measurements with a high spectral and spatial resolution in terrestrial and ice ecosystems and is based on the Laser-Induced Fluorescence Emission (L.I.F.E.) technique. Photoautotrophic supraglacial communities can be identified by the detection of L.I.F.E. signatures in photopigments. The L.I.F.E. instrument calibration for the porphyrin derivates chlorophylla (chla) (405 nm laser excitation) and B-phycoerythrin (B-PE) (532 nm laser excitation) is demonstrated. For the validation of this methodology, L.I.F.E. data were ratified by a conventional method for chla quantification that involved pigment extraction and subsequent absorption spectroscopy. The prototype applicability in the field was proven in extreme polar environments. Further testing on terrestrial habitats took place during Mars analog simulations in the Moroccan dessert and on an Austrian rock glacier. The L.I.F.E. instrument enables high resolution scans of large areas with acceptable operation logistics and contributes to a better understanding of the ecological potential of supraglacial communities in the context of global change.

The atmosphere harbours a vast diversity of primary biological aerosols (PBAs) that are subjected to vertical and horizontal dispersal mechanisms that are not fully understood. In addition to size and weight constraints on PBAs to be lifted into the air column, local meteorological features dominate the fate of bioaerosols and their possible inclusion in long‐range transport. For organic particles to be included into long distant dispersal, they have to overcome surface vertical mixing of the planetary boundary layer (PBL) to reach levels of laminar air movement. Hence, the biogeography of PBAs along a vertical distribution through the PBL needed further study. To assess the microbial biodiversity along an altitudinal gradient, air samples were collected between 1,000 and 3,100m above sea level at Mount Sonnblick in the Austrian Alps. 16S rRNA gene and internal transcribed spacer sequencing for bacteria and fungi, respectively, were used to define distinct microbial communities that were separated by the PBL. Up to the top of the PBL, plant‐associated bacteria and fungi were detected and were subjected to limited vertical dispersal due to size‐constraints. This indicates that those communities become aerosolised but were not lifted into higher altitudes. However, a variety of ubiquitous, thermophilic strains that are often identified with heavy dust events and high endurance towards extreme conditions were significantly increased (relative abundance) at higher elevations. The lack of information on vertical dispersal is due to reliance on ground‐based investigations that bias the interpretation of dispersal dynamics. Thus, to understand the mechanisms for near‐ground communities to become airborne and subsequently included in long‐range transport, we recommend investigating meteorological driving forces for an improved biogeographical assessment. Here, we show, for the first time, an assessment of the biogeography of bacterial and fungal assemblages along a vertical alpine air column transect.

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Through litter decomposition enormous amounts of carbon is emitted to the atmosphere. Numerous large-scale decomposition experiments have been conducted focusing on this fundamental soil process in order to understand the controls on the terrestrial carbon transfer to the atmosphere. However, previous studies were mostly based on site-specific litter and methodologies, adding major uncertainty to syntheses, comparisons and meta-analyses across different experiments and sites. In the TeaComposition initiative, the potential litter decomposition is investigated by using standardized substrates (Rooibos and Green tea) for comparison of litter mass loss at 336 sites (ranging from -9 to +26 °C MAT and from 60 to 3113 mm MAP) across different ecosystems. In this study we tested the effect of climate (temperature and moisture), litter type and land-use on early stage decomposition (3 months) across nine biomes. We show that litter quality was the predominant controlling factor in early stage litter decomposition, which explained about 65% of the variability in litter decomposition at a global scale. The effect of climate, on the other hand, was not litter specific and explained

Background A critical aspect regarding the global dispersion of pathogenic microorganisms is associated with atmospheric movement of soil particles. Especially, desert dust storms can transport alien microorganisms over continental scales and can deposit them in sensitive sink habitats. In winter 2014, the largest ever recorded Saharan dust event in Italy was efficiently deposited on the Dolomite Alps and was sealed between dust-free snow. This provided us the unique opportunity to overcome difficulties in separating dust associated from “domestic” microbes and thus, to determine with high precision microorganisms transported exclusively by desert dust. Results Our metagenomic analysis revealed that sandstorms can move not only fractions but rather large parts of entire microbial communities far away from their area of origin and that this microbiota contains several of the most stress-resistant organisms on Earth, including highly destructive fungal and bacterial pathogens. In particular, we provide first evidence that winter-occurring dust depositions can favor a rapid microbial contamination of sensitive sink habitats after snowmelt. Conclusions Airborne microbial depositions accompanying extreme meteorological events represent a realistic threat for ecosystem and public health. Therefore, monitoring the spread and persistence of storm-travelling alien microbes is a priority while considering future trajectories of climatic anomalies as well as anthropogenically driven changes in land use in the source regions. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40168-017-0249-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Atmospheric dispersal of bacteria is increasingly acknowledged as an important factorinfluencing bacterial community biodiversity, biogeography and bacteria–human interactions,including those linked to human health. However, knowledge about patterns in microbial aerobiologyis still relatively scarce, and this can be attributed, in part, to a lack of consensus on appropriatesampling and analytical methodology. In this study, three different methods were used to investigateaerial biodiversity over Svalbard: impaction, membrane filtration and drop plates. Sites aroundSvalbard were selected due to their relatively remote location, low human population, geographicallocation with respect to air movement and the tradition and history of scientific investigation on thearchipelago, ensuring the presence of existing research infrastructure. The aerial bacterial biodiversityfound was similar to that described in other aerobiological studies from both polar and non-polarenvironments, with Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Firmicutes being the predominant groups. Twelve different phyla were detected in the air collected above Svalbard, although the diversity wasconsiderably lower than in urban environments elsewhere. However, only 58 of 196 bacterial generadetected were consistently present, suggesting potentially higher levels of heterogeneity. Viablebacteria were present at all sampling locations, showing that living bacteria are ubiquitous in theair around Svalbard. Sampling location influenced the results obtained, as did sampling method.Specifically, impaction with a Sartorius MD8 produced a significantly higher number of viable colonyforming units (CFUs) than drop plates alone.

The Passepartout sounding balloon transportation system for low-mass ( 1200 g) experiments or hardware for validation to an altitude of 35 km is described. We present the general flight configuration, set-up of the flight control system, environmental and position sensors, power system, buoyancy considerations as well as the ground control infrastructure including recovery operations. In the telemetry and command module the integrated airborne computer is able to control the experiment, transmit telemetry and environmental data and allows for a duplex communication to a control centre for tele-commanding. The experiment module is mounted below the telemetry and command module and can either work as a standalone system or be controlled by the airborne computer. This spacing between experiment- and control unit allows for a high flexibility in the experiment design. After a parachute landing, the on-board satellite based recovery subsystems allow for a rapid tracking and recovery of the telemetry and command module and the experiment. We discuss flight data and lessons learned from two representative flights with research payloads.

While elution processes of ions and solutes from alpine and arctic snowpacks are well known, the scientific knowledge of the effects on microbial cells and their link to glacial surface ecology during this period is very limited. Here we show that dissolved substances are eluted from a High Arctic snowpack according to previous reports, while the microbial cells are retained and most likely also proliferate. Their retention enhances the interaction between the snowpack-derived microorganisms and microbial communities living on the surface of glaciers, a habitat known for its cell retention, especially those associated with debris known as cryoconite. Microbial biomass is retained during all stages of the summer ablation upon these Arctic glaciers, emphasizing the need to explore the feedback between microbial growth and meltwater biogeochemistry. Furthermore, the snowpack stratigraphy at Midtre Lovenbreen, Svalbard, shows a frequently low abundance of cells, typically corresponding to those of cl...

We have developed a portable dual-wavelength laser fluorescence spectrometer as part of a multi-instrument optical probe to characterize mineral, organic, and microbial species in extreme environments. Operating at 405 and 532 nm, the instrument was originally designed for use by human explorers to produce a laser-induced fluorescence emission (L.I.F.E.) spectral database of the mineral and organic molecules found in the microbial communities of Earth's cryosphere. Recently, our team had the opportunity to explore the strengths and limitations of the instrument when it was deployed on a remote-controlled Mars analog rover. In February 2013, the instrument was deployed on board the Magma White rover platform during the MARS2013 Mars analog field mission in the Kess Kess formation near Erfoud, Morocco. During these tests, we followed tele-science work flows pertinent to Mars surface missions in a simulated spaceflight environment. We report on the L.I.F.E. instrument setup, data processing, and performance during field trials. A pilot postmission laboratory analysis determined that rock samples acquired during the field mission exhibited a fluorescence signal from the Sun-exposed side characteristic of chlorophyll a following excitation at 405 nm. A weak fluorescence response to excitation at 532 nm may have originated from another microbial photosynthetic pigment, phycoerythrin, but final assignment awaits development of a comprehensive database of mineral and organic fluorescence spectra. No chlorophyll fluorescence signal was detected from the shaded underside of the samples.

Cryoconite holes are known as foci of microbial diversity and activity on polar glacier surfaces, but are virtually unexplored microbial habitats in alpine regions. In addition, whether cryoconite community structure reflects ecosystem functionality is poorly understood. Terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism and Fourier transform infrared metabolite fingerprinting of cryoconite from glaciers in Austria, Greenland and Svalbard demonstrated cryoconite bacterial communities are closely correlated with cognate metabolite fingerprints. The influence of bacterial-associated fatty acids and polysaccharides was inferred, underlining the importance of bacterial community structure in the properties of cryoconite. Thus, combined application of T-RFLP and FT-IR metabolite fingerprinting promises high throughput, and hence, rapid assessment of community structure-function relationships. Pyrosequencing revealed Proteobacteria were particularly abundant, with Cyanobacteria likely acting as ecosystem engineers in both alpine and Arctic cryoconite communities. However, despite these generalities, significant differences in bacterial community structures, compositions and metabolomes are found between alpine and Arctic cryoconite habitats, reflecting the impact of local and regional conditions on the challenges of thriving in glacial ecosystems.

Between 15 and 25 April 2011 in the framework of the PolAres programme of the Austrian Space Forum, a five-day field test of the Aouda.X spacesuit simulator was conducted at the Rio Tinto Mars-analogue site in southern Spain. The field crew was supported by a full-scale Mission Control Center (MCC) in Innsbruck, Austria. The field telemetry data were relayed to the MCC, enabling a Remote Science Support (RSS) team to study field data in near-real-time and adjust the flight planning in a flexible manner. We report on the experiences in the field of robotics, geophysics (Ground Penetrating Radar) and geology as well as life sciences in a simulated spaceflight operational environment. Extravehicular Activity (EVA) maps had been prepared using Google Earth and aerial images. The Rio Tinto mining area offers an excellent location for Mars analogue simulations. It is recognised as a terrestrial Mars analogue site because of the presence of jarosite and related sulphates, which have been identified by the NASA Mars Exploration Rover “Opportunity” in the El Capitan region of Meridiani Planum on Mars. The acidic, high ferric-sulphate content water of Rio Tinto is also considered as a possible analogue in astrobiology regarding the analysis of ferric sulphate related biochemical pathways and produced biomarkers. During our Mars simulation, 18 different types of soil and rock samples were collected by the spacesuit tester. The Raman results confirm the presence of minerals expected, such as jarosite, different Fe oxides and oxi-hydroxides, pyrite and complex Mg and Ca sulphates. Eight science experiments were conducted in the field. In this contribution first we list the important findings during the management and realisation of tests, and also a first summary of the scientific results. Based on these experiences suggestions for future analogue work are also summarised. We finish with recommendations for future field missions, including the preparation of the experiments, communication and data transfer – as an aid to the planning of future simulations.

Cryoconite holes are foci of unusually high microbial diversity and activity on glacier surfaces worldwide, comprising melt-holes formed by the darkening of ice by biogenic granular debris. Despite recent studies linking cryoconite microbial community structure to the functionality of cryoconite habitats, little is known of the processes shaping the cryoconite bacterial community. In particular, the assertions that the community is strongly influenced by aeolian transfer of biota from ice-marginal habitats and the potential for cryoconite microbes to inoculate proglacial habitats are poorly quantified despite their longevity in the literature. Therefore, the bacterial community structures of cryoconite holes on three High-Arctic glaciers were compared to bacterial communities in adjacent moraines and tundra using terminal-restriction fragment length polymorphism. Distinct community structures for cryoconite and ice-marginal communities were observed. Only a minority of phylotypes are present in both habitat types, implying that cryoconite habitats comprise distinctive niches for bacterial taxa when compared to ice-marginal habitats. Curiously, phylotype abundance distributions for both cryoconite and icemarginal sites best fit models relating to succession. Our analyses demonstrate clearly that cryoconites have their own, distinct functional microbial communities despite significant inputs of cells from other habitats. Keywords: Cryoconite; glacier; Svalbard; moraines; niche; T-RFLP (Published: 22 May 2013) To access the supplementary material for this article, please see Supplementary Files in the column to the right (under Article Tools). Citation: Polar Research 2013, 32 , 19468, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/polar.v32i0.19468

Snow environments can occupy over a third of land surface area, but little is known about the dynamics of snowpack bacteria. The effect of snow melt on bacterial community structure and diversity of surface environments of a Svalbard glacier was examined using analyses of 16S rRNA genes via T-RFLP, qPCR and 454 pyrosequencing. Distinct community structures were found in different habitat types, with changes over 1 week apparent, in particular for the dominant bacterial class present, Betaproteobacteria. The differences observed were consistent with influences from depositional mode (snowfall vs aeolian dusts), contrasting snow with dust-rich snow layers and near-surface ice. Contrary to that, slush as the decompositional product of snow harboured distinct lineages of bacteria, further implying post-depositional changes in community structure. Taxa affiliated to the betaproteobacterial genus Polaromonas were particularly dynamic, and evidence for the presence of betaproteobacterial ammonia-oxidizing bacteria was uncovered, inviting the prospect that the dynamic bacterial communities associated with snowpacks may be active in supraglacial nitrogen cycling and capable of rapid responses to changes induced by snowmelt. Furthermore the potential of supraglacial snowpack ecosystems to respond to transient yet spatially extensive melting episodes such as that observed across most of Greenland's ice sheet in 2012 merits further investigation.

Cryoconite holes on glacier surfaces are ice-cold hot spots of microbial diversity and activity but still little is known about their fungal inhabitants. We provide the first report of distinctive fungal communities in cryoconite debris from three valley glaciers at Kongsfjorden, Svalbard. Multivariate analysis of terminal-restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) profiles of rRNA ITS amplicons revealed that quite distinct fungal communities were found in cryoconite holes compared with soils from adjacent moraine and tundra sites, and that communities on glaciers with contrasting ice-surface hydrology also differed. Most of the fungi cultured from cryoconite sediment were basidiomycetous yeasts or filamentous Ascomycota (Helotiales/Pleosporales). The latter included aeroaquatic fungi, such as Articulospora and Varicosporium, implying a role for these important freshwater decomposers in the carbon dynamics of cryoconite holes. Matching of the dominant peaks from T-RFLP analysis to predicted peaks of cultured isolates confirmed the abundance of these aeroaquatic fungi but also revealed that most of the dominant T-RFLP peaks did not match any cultured isolates. Considering the prevalence and endangerment of glacial environments worldwide, these findings would suggest that their potential as reservoirs of fungal diversity should not be overlooked.

112 – und niemand hilft – so lautet der Titel einer im Jahr 2012 veroffentlichten Studie von Price Waterhouse. In dieser Studie wird anschaulich dargelegt, wie sich ohne massives Gegensteuern der Fachkrafte- und insbesondere auch der Facharztmangel in Deutschland auswirken werden. In Worms ist der angedrohte Arztemangel bereits seit Jahren spurbar: Arzte finden keinen Nachfolger, neue Patienten keinen betreuenden Hausarzt. Wir als Arztenetz haben deshalb bereits im Jahr 2011 begonnen aktiv gegenzusteuern. Freiberufliche Mitgliedsarzte sind die Basis fur unsere Netzarbeit – ohne Arzte ist auch ein Arztenetz sinnlos! Schon allein aus dieser Erkenntnis heraus setzen wir seit einigen Jahren sehr viel Energie ein, um Nachwuchsarzte fur eine Niederlassung (oder wenigstens eine Anstellung) im ambulanten Bereich zu gewinnen.

In the field of observation, chance favours only the prepared mind (Pasteur). Impressive developments in genomics have led microbiology to its third “Golden Age”. However, conventional metagenomics strategies necessitate retrograde transfer of samples from extreme or remote environments for later analysis, rendering the powerful insights gained retrospective in nature, striking a contrast with Pasteur’s dictum. Here we implement highly portable USB-based nanopore DNA sequencing platforms coupled with field-adapted environmental DNA extraction, rapid sequence library generation and off-line analyses of shotgun metagenome and 16S ribosomal RNA gene amplicon profiles to characterize microbiota dwelling within cryoconite holes upon Svalbard glaciers, the Greenland Ice Sheet and the Austrian Alps. We show in-field nanopore sequencing of metagenomes captures taxonomic composition of supraglacial microbiota, while 16S rRNA Furthermore, comparison of nanopore data with prior 16S rRNA gene V1-V3 pyrosequencing from the same samples, demonstrates strong correlations between profiles obtained from nanopore sequencing and laboratory based sequencing approaches. gene amplicon sequencing resolves bacterial community responses to habitat changes. Finally, we demonstrate the fidelity and sensitivity of in-field sequencing by analysis of mock communities using field protocols. Ultimately, in-field sequencing potentiated by nanopore devices raises the prospect of enhanced agility in exploring Earth’s most remote microbiomes.

Artículo escrito por un elevado número de autores, sólo se referencian el primero, los autores que firman como Universidad Autónoma de Madrid y el grupo de colaboración en el caso de que aparezca en el artículo, The role of aerial dispersal in shaping patterns of biodiversity remains poorly understood, mainly due to a lack of coordinated efforts in gathering data at appropriate temporal and spatial scales. It has been long known that the rate of dispersal to an ecosystem can significantly influence ecosystem dynamics, and that aerial transport has been identified as an important source of biological input to remote locations. With the considerable effort devoted in recent decades to understanding atmospheric circulation in the south-polar region, a unique opportunity has emerged to investigate the atmospheric ecology of Antarctica, from regional to continental scales. This concept note identifies key questions in Antarctic microbial biogeography and the need for standardized sampling and analysis protocols to address such questions. A consortium of polar aerobiologists is established to bring together researchers with a common interest in the airborne dispersion of microbes and other propagules in the Antarctic, with opportunities for comparative studies in the Arctic, The SCAR ANTECO Programme for hosting the workshop. Special thanks to Maria L. Ávila-Jiménez who produced the Figures. AD thanks ANR-15-CE01 INHALE and IPEV (GMOstral 1028)

International audience; We highlight the role of COSPAR and the scientific community in defining and updating the framework of planetary protection. Specifically, we focus on Mars ?Special Regions,? areas where strict planetary protection measures have to be applied before a spacecraft can explore them, given the existence of environmental conditions that may be conducive to terrestrial microbial growth. We outline the history of the concept of Special Regions and inform on recent developments regarding the COSPAR policy, namely, the MEPAG SR-SAG2 review and the Academies and ESF joint committee report on Mars Special Regions. We present some new issues that necessitate the update of the current policy and provide suggestions for new definitions of Special Regions. We conclude with the current major scientific questions that remain unanswered regarding Mars Special Regions.

As part of the “PolAres” research programme, we are investigating techniques to detect and reduce forward contamination of the Mars regolith during human exploration. We report here on the development of a spacesuit simulator-prototype dubbed “Aouda.X,” document the inability of current technology to produce a static charge sufficient to minimize dust transport on the suit, and present preliminary results employing laser induced fluorescence emission (L.I.F.E.) techniques to monitor fluorescent microspherules as biological contamination proxies.

Laser-induced fluorescence emission (LIFE) images were obtained in situ from a 27 cm long ice core at Lake Fryxell, Antarctica. The excitation was accomplished with a simple 532 nm green laser pen light, and the fluorescence images were captured with a small compact digital camera. The targets for the experiment were mm-scale cryoconite assemblages found in the ice covers of this perennially frozen Antarctic lake. The fluorescence response originates from photo-pigments in cyanobacteria-dominated cryoconite assemblages with phycoerythrin (PE) exhibiting the optimal target cross section. This inexpensive, low-mass, low-energy method avoids manipulation of the in situ habitat and individual target organisms and does not disturb the microbial community or the surrounding ice matrix. We establish the correlation between fluorescence intensity and PE concentration. We show that cryoconite fluorescence response does not appear to decrease with depth in the ice cover, in agreement with similar findings at Lake Untersee, a perennially ice-covered lake in Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica. Optical reflection and refraction events at the air/ice interface can complicate quantitative estimates of total pigment concentrations. Laser targeting of a single mm-scale cryoconite can result in multiple neighboring excitation events secondary to reflection and refraction phenomena in the multiple air/ice interface of the bubbles surrounding the primary target.

The European Space Agency will launch the ExoMars mission in 2016 with a primary goal of surveying the martian subsurface for evidence of organic material. We have recently investigated the utility of including either a 365 nm light-emitting diode or a 375 nm laser light source in the ExoMars rover panoramic camera (PanCam). Such a modification would make it feasible to monitor rover drill cuttings optically for the fluorescence signatures of aromatic organic molecules and map the distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) as a function of depth to the 2 m limit of the ExoMars drill. The technique described requires no sample preparation, does not consume irreplaceable resources, and would allow mission control to prioritize deployment of organic detection experiments that require sample destruction, expenditure of non-replaceable consumables, or both. We report here for the first time laser-induced fluorescence emission (L.I.F.E.) imaging detection limits for anthracene, pyrene, and perylene targets doped onto a Mars analog granular peridotite with a 375 nm Nichia laser diode in optically uncorrected wide-angle mode. Data were collected via the Beagle 2 PanCam backup filter wheel fitted with original blue (440 nm), green (530 nm), and red (670 nm) filters. All three PAH species can be detected with the PanCam green (530 nm) filter. Detection limits in the green band for signal-to-noise ratios (S/N)10 are 49 parts per million (ppm) for anthracene, 145 ppm for pyrene, and 20 ppm for perylene. The anthracene detection limit improves to 7 ppm with use of the PanCam blue filter. We discuss soil-dependent detection limit constraints; use of UV excitation with other rover cameras, which provides higher spatial resolution; and the advantages of focused and wide-angle laser modes. Finally, we discuss application of L.I.F.E. techniques at multiple wavelengths for exploration of Mars analog extreme environments on Earth, including Icelandic hydrothermally altered basalts and the ice-covered lakes and glaciers of Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica.

Laser-induced fluorescence emission (L.I.F.E.) images were obtained in situ following 532 nm excitation of cryoconite assemblages in the ice covers of annual and perennially frozen Antarctic lakes during the 2008 Tawani International Expedition to Schirmacher Oasis and Lake Untersee in Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica. Laser targeting of a single millimeter-scale cryoconite results in multiple neighboring excitation events secondary to ice/air interface reflection and refraction in the bubbles surrounding the primary target. Laser excitation at 532 nm of cyanobacteria-dominated assemblages produced red and infrared autofluorescence activity attributed to the presence of phycoerythrin photosynthetic pigments. The method avoids destruction of individual target organisms and does not require the disruption of either the structure of the microbial community or the surrounding ice matrix. L.I.F.E. survey strategies described may be of interest for orbital monitoring of photosynthetic primary productivity in polar and alpine glaciers, ice sheets, snow, and lake ice of Earth's cryosphere. The findings open up the possibility of searching from either a rover or from orbit for signs of life in the polar regions of Mars and the frozen regions of exoplanets in neighboring star systems.

Antarctic microbial biodiversity is the result of a balance between evolution, extinction and colonization, and so it is not possible to gain a full understanding of the microbial biodiversity of a location, its biogeography, stability or evolutionary relationships without some understanding of the input of new biodiversity from the aerial environment. In addition, it is important to know whether the microorganisms already present are transient or resident – this is particularly true for the Antarctic environment, as selective pressures for survival in the air are similar to those that make microorganisms suitable for Antarctic colonization. The source of potential airborne colonists is widespread, as they may originate from plant surfaces, animals, water surfaces or soils and even from bacteria replicating within the clouds. On a global scale, transport of air masses from the well-mixed boundary layer to high-altitude sites has frequently been observed, particularly in the warm season, and these air masses contain microorganisms. Indeed, it has become evident that much of the microbial life within remote environments is transported by air currents. In this review, we examine the behaviour of microorganisms in the Antarctic aerial environment and the extent to which these microorganisms might influence Antarctic microbial biodiversity.

Cryoconite holes, which can cover 0.1–10% of the surface area of glaciers, are small, water-filled depressions (typically o1 m in diameter and usually o0.5 m deep) that form on the surface of glaciers when solar-heated inorganic and organic debris melts into the ice. Recent studies show that cryoconites are colonized by a diverse range of microorganisms, including viruses, bacteria and algae. Whether microbial communities on the surface of glaciers are actively influencing biogeochemical cycles or are just present in a dormant state has been a matter of debate for long time. Here, we report primary production and community respiration of cryoconite holes upon glaciers in Svalbard, Greenland and the European Alps. Microbial activity in cryoconite holes is high despite maximum temperatures seldom exceeding 0.11C. In situ primary production and respiration in cryoconites during the summer is often comparable with that found in soils in warmer and nutrient richer regions. Considering only glacier areas outside Antarctica and a conservative average cryoconite distribution on glacial surfaces, we found that on a global basis cryoconite holes have the potential to fix as much as 64 Gg of carbon per year (i.e. 98 Gg of photosynthesis minus 34 Gg of community respiration). Most lakes and rivers are generally considered as heterotrophic systems, but our results suggest that glaciers, which contain 75% of the freshwater of the planet, are largely autotrophic systems.

Bacterial production in glacial runoff and aquatic habitats along a c. 500m transect from the ablation area of a Svalbard glacier (Midre Lov´enbreen, 791N, 121E) down to a series of proglacial lakes in its forefield were assessed. In addition, a series of in situ experiments were conducted to test how different nutrient sources (glacial flour and dissolved organic matter derived from goose faeces) and temperature affect bacterial abundance and production in these ecosystems. Bacterial abundance and production increased significantly along this transect and reached a maximum in the proglacial lakes. Bacterial diversity profiles as assessed by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis indicated that communities in glacial runoff were different from those in proglacial lakes. Heterotrophic bacterial production was mainly controlled by temperature and phosphorus limitation. Addition of both glacial flour and dissolved organic matter derived from goose faeces stimulated bacterial production in those lakes. The results suggest that glacial runoff sustains an active bacterial community which is further stimulated in proglacial lakes by higher temperatures and nutrient inputs from bird faeces. Thus, as in maritime temperate and Antarctic settings, bacterial communities developing in the recently deglaciated terrain of Svalbard receive important inputs of nutrients via faunal transfers from adjacent ecosystems.

Blood Falls, a saline subglacial discharge from the Taylor Glacier, Antarctica provides an example of the diverse physical and chemical niches available for life in the polar desert of the McMurdo Dry Valleys. Geochemical analysis of Blood Falls outflow resembles concentrated seawater remnant from the Pliocene intrusion of marine waters combined with products of weathering. The result is an iron-rich, salty seep at the terminus of Taylor Glacier, which is subject to episodic releases into permanently ice-covered Lake Bonney. Blood Falls influences the geochemistry of Lake Bonney, and provides organic carbon and viable microbes to the lake system. Here we present the first data on the geobiology of Blood Falls and relate it to the evolutionary history of this unique environment. The novel geological evolution of this subglacial environment makes Blood Falls an important site for the study of metabolic strategies in subglacial environments and the impact of subglacial efflux on associated lake ecosystems.