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The foreign language vocabulary learning research literature often attributes strong mnemonic potency to the cognitive processing of meaning when learning words. Routinely cited as support for this idea are experiments by Craik and Tulving (C&T) demonstrating superior recognition and recall of studied words following semantic tasks ("deep" encoding) compared to structure-related tasks ("shallow" encoding). However, participants in C&T were not language learners but native speakers of English studying known English nouns. These experiments have never been directly replicated using nonnatives to establish the relevance of the findings to nonnatives and learners. The present study replicated C&T Experiment 5, comparing effects of shallow and deep encoding tasks on subsequent recognition of target words by native and nonnative speakers of English with equivalent short-term memory function. The results showed depth effects similar to C&T for all participants, indicating that C&T's results do generalize to less proficient speakers of the target language. It is crucial, however, that nonnative speakers of English benefited less from semantic encoding than native speakers, suggesting an effect of preexisting knowledge representations on mnemonic effects derived from semantic processing, and hence, a limit to the relevance of C&T for learners. Results are discussed in terms of the constructs of the mental lexicon, expert knowledge, distinctiveness and levels of processing in memory research and language learning.

A longitudinal study compared the effects of distributed and massed practice schedules on the learning of second language English syntax. Participants were taught distinctions in the tense and aspect systems of English at short and long practice intervals. They were then tested at short and long intervals. The results showed that distributed practice led to superior test scores on the long-term tests, indicating that the learning of second language syntax can benefit from distributed practice in a manner very similar to that reported for other skills and information types in the experimental psychology literature. Implications for intensive language-learning programs and syllabus design in general are discussed.

The substantial and increasing number of older Australian people from culturally diverse backgrounds justifies the investigation and inclusion of their experiences in ageing research. Few empirical studies have addressed culturally diverse issues in the older population, however, in part because of the particular challenges in recruiting and retaining people from different cultural backgrounds. This article reflects on a research team's experience of recruiting participants from seven cultural groups into a study that sought to explore the links between physical activity and the built environment. Three key issues for recruiting and retaining participants from culturally diverse backgrounds were identified: having access to key local informants; the central role of paid and trained bilingual interviewers; and supporting the research partners in recruitment activities. Furthermore, it appeared that a 'one size fits all' approach was not appropriate and that a flexible recruitment strategy may be required to ensure successful recruitment from all cultural groups. The differences observed in this study relating to recruitment and retention rates may be more dependent on the skills and characteristics of those responsible for the recruitment and interviewing, rather than the specific cultural group itself. Older people from some cultural backgrounds may be less likely to respond to traditional recruitment methods and researchers need to be more assiduous and strategic to improve participation rates in research. KEY WORDS--older adults, ethnic minorities, cultural diversity, recruitment, retention, methodology.