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Introduction: There is no consensus on which imaging modality is better for the detection of metastatic cervical lymph nodes in orofacial malignancies. This study evaluates the efficacy of computed tomography (CT) and ultrasonography (US) in diagnosis of metastatic lymph nodes in orofacial cancer. Materials and Methods: Sixty patients with various histologically diagnosed orofacial malignant lesions and clinical evidence of cervical lymph node metastasis were examined using US and CT. Further, the affected lymph nodes were biopsied and examined histologically. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), and accuracy of the techniques were calculated. The data was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 19 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) and Microsoft Excel 2010 (Microsoft, Redmond, WA, USA). Test of statistical significance was set at 0.05. Results: US recorded a sensitivity, specificity, PPV, NPV, and accuracy of 80.0%, 57.1%, 77.5%, 60.0%, and 71.7%, respectively (p = 0.004), while CT recorded a sensitivity, specificity, PPV, NPV, and accuracy of 87.1%, 71.4%, 85.0%, 75.0%, and 81.7%, respectively (p

Xiphosura are extant marine chelicerates that have displayed apparent morphological conservatism and remarkable survivorship across their ~ 480 Ma fossil record. The easily recognisable features that are known to even the earliest xiphosurans-a crescentic prosoma and often trapezoidal thoracetron (opisthosoma)-have generated debate surrounding their origins and taxonomic significance. This interest resulted in the description of numerous horseshoe crab species during the early to mid-twentieth century, particularly in Russia, that have remained unrevised since their original publications and unconsidered in the light of recent phylogenetic hypotheses. Here, we re-examine the non-belinurid taxa housed within the Chernyshev Central Museum for Geological Exploration in Saint Petersburg. We present the first formal diagnosis of Bellinuroopsis rossicus, erect Shpineviolimulus jakovlevi (Glushenko and Ivanov, 1961) comb. nov., to contain the species formerly described as 'Paleolimulus' jakovlevi and refer Paleolimulus juresanensis to Paleolimulidae incertae sedis. Phylogenetic analysis places S. jakovlevi at the base of Limulina. This position, coupled with a prosomal shield that is notably larger than the thoracetron, and lack of hypertrophied genal spines, suggests that this morphology may represent the ancestral austrolimulid shape. As an extension of this revision, we assessed the general austrolimulid morphological characters and uncovered two possible groups of these bizarre xiphosurids.

The diversity of Australia's theropod fauna from the 'mid'-Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian) is distinctly biased towards the medium-sized megaraptorids, despite the preponderance of abelisauroids in the younger but latitudinally equivalent Patagonian theropod fauna. Here, we present new evidence for the presence of ceratosaurian, and specifically abelisauroid, theropods from the Cenomanian Griman Creek Formation of Lightning Ridge, New South Wales. A partial cervical vertebra is described that bears a mediolaterally concave ventral surface of the centrum delimited by sharp ventrolateral ridges that contact the parapophyses. Among theropods, this feature has been reported only in a cervical vertebra attributed to the noasaurid Noasaurus. We also reappraise evidence recently cited against the ceratosaurian interpretation of a recently described astragalocalcaneum from the upper Barremian-lower Aptian San Remo Member of the upper Strzelecki Group in Victoria. Inclusion of the Lightning Ridge cervical vertebra and Victorian astragalocalcaneum into a revised phylogenetic analysis focused on elucidating ceratosaurian affinities reveals support for placement of both specimens within Noasauridae, which among other characters is diagnosed by the presence of a medial eminence on the ascending process of the astragalus. The Lightning Ridge and Victorian specimens simultaneously represent the first noasaurids reported from Australia and the astragalocalcaneum is considered the earliest known example of a noasaurid in the world to date. The recognition of Australian noasaurids further indicates a more widespread Gondwanan distribution of the clade outside of South America, Madagascar and India consistent with the timing of the fragmentation of the supercontinent.

Xiphosurida-crown group horseshoe crabs-are a group of morphologically conservative marine chelicerates (at least since the Jurassic). They represent an idealised example of evolutionary stasis. Unfortunately, body fossils of horseshoe crabs seldom preserve appendages and their associated features; thus, an important aspect of their morphology is absent in explorations of their conservative Bauplan. As such, fossil horseshoe crab appendages are rarely considered within a comparative framework: previous comparisons have focussed almost exclusively on extant taxa to the exclusion of extinct taxa. Here, we examine eight specimens of the xiphosurid Tachypleus syriacus (Woodward, 1879) from the Cenomanian (ca 100 Ma) Konservat-Lagerstätten of Lebanon, five of which preserve the cephalothoracic and thoracetronic appendages in exceptional detail. Comparing these appendages of T. syriacus with other fossil xiphosurids highlights the conserved nature of appendage construction across Xiphosurida, including examples of Austrolimulidae, Paleolimulidae, and Limulidae. Conversely, Belinuridae have more elongate cephalothoracic appendages relative to body length. Differences in appendage sizes are likely related to the freshwater and possible subaerial life modes of belinurids, contrasting with the primarily marine habits of other families. The morphological similarity of T. syriacus to extant members of the genus indicates that the conserved nature of the generic lineage can be extended to ecological adaptations, notably burrowing, swimming, possible diet, and sexual dimorphism.

Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) occlusion is one of the more common cardiovascular procedures performed in dogs. Two-dimensional imaging has been the primary method of visualizing the PDA and is the basis of its morphologic description. Transesophageal echocardiographic imaging has further characterized the three-dimensional (3D) variation in ductal morphology and shape (circle, oval). An accurate assessment of the shape and dimensions of a PDA in an individual dog is important when making decisions about definitive closure. Ductal measurements from angiography and echocardiography have not been found to be interchangeable, likely related in part to the static two-dimensional measurement of a 3D structure. We describe the use of computed tomography angiography (CTA) images imported into three software programs as a tool to provide 3D information about PDA anatomy including a comparison to images obtained from classic two-dimensional imaging modalities. These images provide an example of thorax and heart position related to transducer position and the orientation of image acquisition to demonstrate why measurements do not always compare. Additionally, 3D images are useful as a training tool and in the development of devices and training opportunities. Multidimensional imaging provides a unique representation of the 3D anatomical structure of the ductus arteriosus as displayed in these images from a dog with a PDA., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: The purpose of this study was to evaluate a canine patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) model developed for practicing device placement and to determine practices and perceptions regarding transcatheter closure of PDA from the veterinary cardiology community., Method: A silicone model was developed from images obtained from a dog with a PDA and device placement was performed with catheter equipment and a document camera to simulate fluoroscopy. A total of 36 individuals including 24 diplomates and 12 residents participated, and the feedback was obtained. The study included an initial questionnaire, practice with the model, observation of device placement using the model, and a follow-up questionnaire., Results: A total of 92% of participants including 100% of residents indicated they did not have the opportunity to practice device placement before performing the procedure and obtained knowledge of the procedure from reading journal articles or observation. Participants indicated selecting the appropriate device size (30/36, 83%) and ensuring the device is appropriately positioned before release (18/36, 50%) as the most common areas of difficulty with device placement. Confidence level was higher after practicing with the model for residents when compared with diplomates and for participants that had performed 1-15 procedures when compared with those that had performed >15 procedures. These findings suggest those that have performed fewer procedures may benefit the most from practicing with a model., Conclusions: This preliminary study demonstrates the feasibility of a PDA model for practicing device placement and suggests that there is a potential benefit from providing additional training resources., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Perspective taking, or "theory of mind," involves reasoning about the mental states of others (e.g., their intentions, desires, knowledge, beliefs) and is called upon in virtually every aspect of human interaction. Our goals in writing this chapter were to provide an overview of (a) the research questions developmental psychologists ask to shed light on how children think about the inner workings of the mind, and (b) why such research is invaluable in understanding human nature and our ability to interact with, and learn from, one another. We begin with a brief review of early research in this field that culminated in the so-called litmus test for a theory of mind (i.e., false-belief tasks). Next, we describe research with infants and young children that created a puzzle for many researchers, and briefly mention an intriguing approach researchers have used to attempt to "solve" this puzzle. We then turn to research examining children's understanding of a much broader range of mental states (beyond false beliefs). We briefly discuss the value of studying individual differences by highlighting their important implications for social well-being and ways to improve perspective taking. Next, we review work illustrating the value of capitalizing on children's proclivity for selective social learning to reveal their understanding of others' mental states. We close by highlighting one line of research that we believe will be an especially fruitful avenue for future research and serves to emphasize the complex interplay between our perspective-taking abilities and other cognitive processes., (© 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Today's children have more opportunities than ever before to learn from interactive technology, yet experimental research assessing the efficacy of children's learning from interactive media in comparison to traditional learning approaches is still quite scarce. Moreover, little work has examined the efficacy of using touch-screen devices for research purposes. The current study compared children's rate of learning factual information about animals during a face-to-face instruction from an adult female researcher versus an analogous instruction from an interactive device. Eighty-six children ages 4 through 8 years (64% male) completed the learning task in either the Face-to-Face condition ( n = 43) or the Interactive Media condition ( n = 43). In the Learning Phase of the experiment, which was presented as a game, children were taught novel facts about animals without being told that their memory of the facts would be tested. The facts were taught to the children either by an adult female researcher (Face-to-Face condition) or from a pre-recorded female voice represented by a cartoon Llama (Interactive Media condition). In the Testing Phase of the experiment that immediately followed, children's memory for the taught facts was tested using a 4-option forced-choice paradigm. Children's rate of learning was significantly above chance in both conditions and a comparison of the rates of learning across the two conditions revealed no significant differences. Learning significantly improved from age 4 to age 8, however, even the preschool-aged children performed significantly above chance, and their performance did not differ between conditions. These results suggest that, interactive media can be equally as effective as one-on-one instruction, at least under certain conditions. Moreover, these results offer support for the validity of using interactive technology to collect data for research purposes. We discuss the implications of these results for children's learning from interactive media, parental attitudes about interactive technology, and research methods.

Detecting dominance relationships, within and across species, provides a clear fitness advantage because this ability helps individuals assess their potential risk of injury before engaging in a competition. Previous research has demonstrated that 10- to 13-mo-old infants can represent the dominance relationship between two agents in terms of their physical size (larger agent = more dominant), whereas younger infants fail to do so. It is unclear whether infants younger than 10 mo fail to represent dominance relationships in general, or whether they lack sensitivity to physical size as a cue to dominance. Two studies explored whether infants, like many species across the animal kingdom, use numerical group size to assess dominance relationships and whether this capacity emerges before their sensitivity to physical size. A third study ruled out an alternative explanation for our findings. Across these studies, we report that infants 6-12 mo of age use numerical group size to infer dominance relationships. Specifically, preverbal infants expect an agent from a numerically larger group to win in a right-of-way competition against an agent from a numerically smaller group. In addition, this is, to our knowledge, the first study to demonstrate that infants 6-9 mo of age are capable of understanding social dominance relations. These results demonstrate that infants' understanding of social dominance relations may be based on evolutionarily relevant cues and reveal infants' early sensitivity to an important adaptive function of social groups.

Virtually every social interaction involves reasoning about the perspectives of others, or 'theory of mind (ToM).' Previous research suggests that it is difficult to ignore our current knowledge when reasoning about a more naïve perspective (i.e., the curse of knowledge). In this Mini Review, we discuss the implications of the curse of knowledge for certain aspects of ToM. Particularly, we examine how the curse of knowledge influences key measurements of false belief reasoning. In closing, we touch on the need to develop new measurement tools to discern the mechanisms involved in the curse of knowledge and false belief reasoning, and how they develop across the lifespan.

A left-to-right shunting patent ductus arteriosus was diagnosed in a 13-week-old, 2.5 kg, male, domestic Shorthair cat with a continuous murmur. Echocardiographic abnormalities were identified, including: cardiomegaly, wide and presumably short ductal ampulla, and a large right branch pulmonary artery. When these findings were combined with the small patient size, additional imaging was considered prior to surgical ligation, and computed tomography angiography was preferred over standard angiography to provide multi-dimensional appreciation of the anatomy prior to surgery. The dataset from a computed tomography angiographic study performed prior to surgical ligation was used to create a three-dimensional model of the heart and great vessels. The rendered images accurately depicted the cardiac anatomy in situ, which can be utilized for surgical procedural planning and to enhance visuospatial understanding of the anatomy at all levels of training., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Theory of mind refers to the abilities underlying the capacity to reason about one's own and others' mental states. This ability is critical for predicting and making sense of the actions of others, is essential for efficient communication, fosters social learning, and provides the foundation for empathic concern. Clearly, there is incredible value in fostering theory of mind. Unfortunately, despite being the focus of a wealth of research over the last 40 years relatively little is known about specific strategies for fostering social perspective taking abilities. We provide a discussion of the rationale for applying one specific strategy for fostering efficient theory of mind-that of engaging in "behavioral synchrony" (i.e., the act of keeping together in time with others). Culturally evolved collective rituals involving synchronous actions have long been held to act as social glue. Specifically, here we present how behavioral synchrony tunes our minds for reasoning about other minds in the process of fostering social coordination and cooperation, and propose that we can apply behavioral synchrony as a tool for enhancing theory of mind.

Perspective-taking and emotion recognition are essential for successful social development and have been the focus of developmental research for many years. Although the two abilities often overlap, they are distinct and our understanding of these abilities critically rests upon the efficacy of existing measures. Lessons from the literature differentiating recall versus recognition memory tasks led us to hypothesize that an open-ended emotion recognition measure would be less reliant on compensatory strategies and hence a more specific measure of emotion recognition abilities than a forced-choice task. To this end, we compared an open-ended version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Task with the original forced-choice version in two studies: 118 typically-developing 4- to 8-year-olds (Study 1) and 139 5- to 12-year-olds; 85 typically-developing and 54 with learning disorders (Study 2). We found that the open-ended version of the task was a better predictor of empathy and more reliably discriminated typically-developing children from those with learning disorders. As a whole, the results suggest that the open-ended version is a more sensitive measure of emotion recognition specifically.

Previous research has demonstrated that preschoolers can use situation-specific (e.g., visual access) and person-specific (e.g., prior accuracy) cues to infer what others know. The present studies investigated whether 4- and 5-year-olds appreciate the differential informativeness of these types of cues. In Experiment 1 (N = 50), children used others' prior labeling accuracy as a cue when learning labels for, but not the visual identity of, hidden objects. In Experiment 2 (N = 64), with both cues present, children attended more to visual access than prior accuracy when learning the visual identity of, but not labels for, hidden objects. These findings demonstrate that children appreciate the difference between situation- and person-specific cues and flexibly evaluate these cues depending on what information they are seeking., (© 2011 The Authors. Child Development © 2011 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.)

Research has shown that preschoolers monitor others' prior accuracy and prefer to learn from individuals who have the best track record. We investigated the scope of preschoolers' attributions based on an individual's prior accuracy. Experiment 1 revealed that 5-year-olds (but not 4-year-olds) used an individual's prior accuracy at labelling to predict her knowledge of words and broader facts; they also showed a 'halo effect' predicting she would be more prosocial. Experiment 2 confirmed that, overall, 4-year-olds did not make explicit generalizations of knowledge. These findings suggest that an individual's prior accuracy influences older preschoolers' expectations of that individual's broader knowledge as well as their impressions of how she will behave in social interactions.

Data from three experiments provide the first evidence that children, at least as young as age two, are vigilant of others' non-verbal cues to credibility, and flexibly use these cues to facilitate learning. Experiment 1 revealed that 2- and 3-year-olds prefer to learn about objects from someone who appears, through non-verbal cues, to be confident in performing actions on those objects than from someone who appears uncertain when performing actions on those objects. Experiment 2 revealed that when 2-year-olds observe only one model perform a single action, either confidently or unconfidently, they do not use the model's level of confidence in this single instance to influence their learning. Experiment 3 revealed that 2-year-olds will use a single model's level of confidence to guide their learning if they have observed that the model has a history of being either consistently confident or consistently uncertain. These findings reveal that young children selectively alter their learning based on others' non-verbal cues of credibility, and underscore the importance of an early sensitivity to socio-cognitive cues for human learning and development.

A wealth of human knowledge is acquired by attending to information provided by other people--but some people are more credible sources than others. In two experiments, we explored whether young children spontaneously keep track of an individual's history of being accurate or inaccurate and use this information to facilitate subsequent learning. We found that 3- and 4-year-olds favor a previously accurate individual when learning new words and learning new object functions and applied the principle of mutual exclusivity to the newly learned words but not the newly learned functions. These findings expand upon previous research in a number of ways, most importantly by showing that (a) children spontaneously keep track of an individual's history and use it to guide subsequent learning without any prompting, and (b) children's sensitivity to others' prior accuracy is not specific to the domain of language.

Assessing what other people know and believe is critical for accurately understanding human action. Young children find it difficult to reason about false beliefs (i.e., beliefs that conflict with reality). The source of this difficulty is a matter of considerable debate. Here we show that if sensitive-enough measures are used, adults show deficits in a false-belief task similar to one used with young children. In particular, we show a curse-of-knowledge bias in false-belief reasoning. That is, adults' own knowledge of an event's outcome can compromise their ability to reason about another person's beliefs about that event. We also found that adults' perception of the plausibility of an event mediates the extent of this bias. These findings shed light on the factors involved in false-belief reasoning and are discussed in light of their implications for both adults' and children's social cognition.

Young children exhibit several deficits in reasoning about their own and other people's mental states. We propose that these deficits, along with more subtle limitations in adults' social-cognitive reasoning, are all manifestations of the same cognitive bias. This is the 'curse of knowledge' - a tendency to be biased by one's own knowledge when attempting to appreciate a more naïve or uninformed perspective. We suggest the developmental differences in mental state reasoning exist because the strength of this bias diminishes with age, not because of a conceptual change in how young children understand mental states. By pointing out the common denominator in children's and adults' limitations in mental state reasoning we hope to provide a unified framework for understanding the nature and development of social cognition.

Young children have problems reasoning about false beliefs. We suggest that this is at least partially the result of the same curse of knowledge that has been observed in adults--a tendency to be biased by one's own knowledge when assessing the knowledge of a more naive person. We tested 3- to 5-year-old children in a knowledge-attribution task and found that young children exhibited a curse-of-knowledge bias to a greater extent than older children, a finding that is consistent with their greater difficulty with false-belief tasks. We also found that children's misattributions were asymmetric. They were limited to cases in which the children were more knowledgeable than the other person; misattributions did not occur when the children were more ignorant than the other person. This suggests that their difficulty is better characterized by the curse of knowledge than by more general egocentrism or rationality accounts.

Unobservable properties that are specific to individuals, such as their proper names, can only be known by people who are familiar with those individuals. Do young children utilize this "familiarity principle" when learning language? Experiment 1 tested whether forty-eight 2- to 4-year-old children were able to determine the referent of a proper name such as "Jessie" based on the knowledge that the speaker was familiar with one individual but unfamiliar with the other. Even 2-year-olds successfully identified Jessie as the individual with whom the speaker was familiar. Experiment 2 examined whether children appreciate this principle at a general level, as do adults, or whether this knowledge may be specific to certain word-learning situations. To test this, forty-eight 3- to 5-year-old children were given the converse of the task in Experiment 1--they were asked to determine the individual with whom the speaker was familiar based on the speaker's knowledge of an individual's proper name. Only 5-year-olds reliably succeeded at this task, suggesting that a general understanding of the familiarity principle is a relatively late developmental accomplishment.