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The German army's 1943 flooding of the Pontine Marshes south of Rome, which later caused a sharp rise in malaria cases among Italian civilians, has recently been described by historian Frank Snowden as a unique instance of biological warfare and bioterrorism in the European theater of war and, consequently, as a violation of the 1925 Geneva Protocol prohibiting chemical and biological warfare. We argue that archival documents fail to support this allegation, on several counts. As a matter of historical record, Hitler prohibited German biological weapons (BW) development and consistently adhered to the Geneva Protocol. Rather than biological warfare against civilians, the Wehrmacht used flooding, land mines, and the destruction of vital infrastructure to obstruct the Allied advance. To protect its own troops in the area, the German army sought to contain the increased mosquito breeding likely to be caused by the flooding. Italians returning to the Pontine Marshes after the German retreat in 1944 suffered malaria as a result of environmental destruction, which was banned by the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions and by subsequent treaties. In contrast, a state's violation of the Geneva Protocol, whether past or present, involves the use of germ weapons and, by inference, a state-level capability. Any allegation of such a serious violation demands credible evidence that meets high scientific and legal standards of proof. Key words: Biological warfare, biological weapons, Geneva Protocol, malaria, Nazi Germany, Italy, World War II, environmental modification doi: 10.2990/29_1_2

INTRODUCTION: AFTER 9/11 I. THE FAILURE OF "BIOSHIELD I" AND THE NEED FOR TORT IMMUNITY II. BIOSHIELD II: A THICK, STURDY SHIELD A. Preparing for the Worst: The Structure and [...]

The legal and ethical issues raised by two cases involving scientists accused of violating biosafety laws which were passed by the US government, post-September 11, 2001 attacks are discussed. There appears to be a consensus in the scientific community that the free and open exchange of information is ultimately the best defense to both naturally occurring pandemics and deliberate biologic attacks.

A biosafety level 4 laboratories, popularly known as hot zone are places to study dangerous and exotic agents such as pathogens that can be transmitted within the laboratory through the air. However, some cities and regions do not want such laboratories as they are viewed as potential targets of terrorist attacks, despite their extensive and redundant safety features.

The Model State Emergency Health Powers Act is described by the attorneys and public health specialists who drafted it at Georgetown University's Center for Law and the Public's Health and Johns Hopkins University. Bills based on this model have been introduced in 34 state legislatures.

A medical ethicist who is also a lawyer believes the Model State Emergency Health Powers Act is a threat to civil liberties and is unnecessary. He believes bioterrorism is a federal responsibility, not a state responsibility, and says the existing federal quarantine law could be updated to deal with bioterrorism. Most state governors already have broad emergency powers and there is no need to expand them.

In the fall of 2001, letters sent through the U.S. mail containing powdered anthrax bacterial spores killed five people, infected 18 others, disrupted the operations of all three branches of […]

ONE OF THE world's great sensual experiences, exulted in daily across Europe, is illegal in the United States. That bite you may be about to take into an unctuous and [...]

BIOTERRORISM, HEALTHCARE, JOBS, AND BENEFITS The House Veterans' Affairs Committee (HVAC) recently approved several bills--on bioterrorism, healthcare, jobs, and benefits--to be sent to the floor of the House of Representatives. [...]

The US is facing the threat of bioterrorism, which are having important consequences for the biomedical research agenda, funding priorities, and the regulatory environment. The efforts put in by the government, policymakers, large-scale industries, and researches to overcome the concern of bioterrorism are presented.