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This study investigated biodiesel production from industrial sludge, focusing on the feasibility and sustainability of converting waste materials into renewable energy sources. This study combines a comparative analysis of various sludge-based biodiesel production methods, highlighting both their environmental benefits and economic potential. Utilizing physical, chemical, and biological pre-treatments, this study optimizes biodiesel yield while assessing the impact of each method on the overall production efficiency. Key findings revealed that industrial sludge provides a viable feedstock, contributes to waste reduction, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions. The novel contributions of this study include a detailed economic assessment of biodiesel production from sludge and a comprehensive environmental impact evaluation that quantifies the potential sustainability benefits. Limitations related to scale-up processes are identified, and solutions to overcome these issues are discussed to improve industrial feasibility. Furthermore, the integration of sludge-based biodiesel production with other renewable energy systems has been explored as a future avenue to enhance energy efficiency and sustainability. This research contributes to a significant scientific niche by addressing scalability challenges and proposing future perspectives for sustainable biodiesel production from industrial waste. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigating the potential of magnesium oxide (MgO), graphitic carbon nitride (g‐C3N4), and their composite nanoparticles as nutrient sources for enhanced microalgae biodiesel production formed the core of this study. Supplementing the growth medium with g‐C3N4 and MgO/g‐C3N4 nanoparticles significantly increased microalgae (Chlorella sorokiniana) growth and lipid accumulation, culminating in a 58 mg/L lipid concentration. Interestingly, while MgO nanoparticles alone led to the highest biodiesel yield, the synergistic effect of MgO and g‐C3N4 in the composite nanoparticles improved nutrient availability and facilitated optimal microalgae growth and lipid accumulation. These findings pave the way for further research and development of nanoparticle‐based strategies to optimize microalgae‐based biodiesel production, offering a promising avenue for a more sustainable and efficient future of biofuel generation. The results showed that the addition of 15 mg/L of MgO NPs produced the maximum biodiesel yield which reached 61.5 mg/L. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To assess the potential of using the secondary treated wastewater for the production of algal biofuel, batch experiments were carried out in photobioreactors using indigenous Chlorella vulgaris isolated from the natural freshwater body. Secondary treated wastewater with partial nitrification was simulated using various proportions of NO3-N and NH4-N while keeping the total nitrogen the same. Experiments with similar concentrations of nitrate without the NH4-N were used for comparison. In the presence of only NO3-N in the concentration range of 9–37 mg/L, the growth and fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) production was similar to the literature reports. When NH4-N was present along with NO3-N, the biomass growth was adversely affected, indicating an impact on the metabolic activity. For the same initial concentrations of nitrate in the culture, the maximum biomass concentration was reduced by 50–60% in the presence of NH4-N. The FAME profile changed significantly and a new FAME was identified, suggesting an impact on the lipid synthesis pathway. Comparison and analysis with the help of existing literature indicated that the adverse effect due to NH4-N was a function of pH. The growth, biomass yield, and FAME production were unaffected by a wide range of phosphorus concentrations. Maximum fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) suitable for biodiesel production (fatty acid carbon chain length C16 to C18) was 381.01 mg/L (224.58 mg/g of dry biomass), produced at NO3-N concentration of 18.5 mg/L and initial nitrogen loading per unit biomass of 0.37 g NO3-N/g of dry biomass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiesel is one of the most produced biofuels worldwide; however, all existing plants base their production on vegetable or animal oils. These raw materials, whose availability is limited due to their origin, might harm food safety. In this way, alternatives such as oils from insects have been attractive. Specifically, black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) can consume various organic residues and bio-transform them into lipids, representing around 40% of the total weight of BSFL. Hence, this work addresses the optimal supply chain (SC) design for biodiesel production, using BSFL's oil as feedstock to substitute conventional diesel with a B20 blend. This was achieved by developing and optimizing a mathematical model. Results indicate that it is possible to satisfy 15.09% of the Mexican diesel demand with a B20 blend. Additionally, CO2 emissions have decreased by 58% compared to the current situation, in which only conventional diesel is used. Moreover 38,967,708 tons of organic residues are valorized, leading to the implantation of a sustainable biodiesel industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil is a potential feedstock to alternative fuel sources. Produced alternative fuel sources were to have a strong emphasis on energy efficiency to substitute the declining world supply of fossil fuels while also improving emission characteristics in diesel engine applications. The development of industrialization and mechanization causes increased fossil fuel consumption and its usage. This study aimed at an experimental investigation of biodiesel blended fuel combustion efficiency for single-cylinder diesel engines under varying engine loads at constant engine speed 1500 rpm. The transesterification process was used to produce biodiesel from waste cooking oil using NaOH as catalysts. Biodiesel reaction takes place with oil to methanol ratio of 6:1 at 60 °C reaction temperature for 90 min with 600 rpm stirring speed while 90% yield gained. Eight sample biodiesel blends were prepared with percentage value B5%, B10%, B15%, B20%, B25%, B30%, B35%, B40% v/v and B100% to investigate the effect of biodiesels on engine performances. The experimental result reveals that the mixed biodiesel blends have lower average value in terms of brake torque, brake power, and brake thermal efficiency than diesel fuels as a percentage of 16.79%, 4.08%, and 27.9% respectively. In addition, the average BSFC of biodiesel blends was increased by 4.8% than baseline diesel fuel. Related to exhaust gases emission test results were shows that the average CO and HC emissions decreased by 52.2% and 60% with increasing loads and blends and the increment of CO2 and NOx by 28.1% and 45.4% respectively than baseline fuel with increasing blends and loads. Biodiesel derived from waste cooking oil was less costly and environmentally friendly and viable to substitute petro-diesel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review explores the potential of green synthesised SBA-15 nanomaterials in biodiesel production, focusing on their promising application despite their lack of direct use in this field. The growing global demand for sustainable and renewable energy sources has intensified interest in biodiesel as a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels. Biodiesel, derived from renewable biomass sources such as agricultural residues and waste cooking oils, offers significant environmental benefits, including reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Traditional SBA-15 synthesis involves hazardous chemicals, but green synthesis methods using biomass-derived silica present an eco-friendly approach. This review examines the unique structural properties of SBA-15, such as its high surface area and uniform pore structure, which could improve biodiesel production when used as a catalyst. While the green-synthesised SBA-15 has not yet been applied directly in biodiesel production, this article proposes its potential utility and emphasises the need for future research to validate its effectiveness. This novel approach of directly using SBA-15 as a catalyst emphasises its potential to improve biodiesel production sustainability and efficiency, contributing to waste management and renewable energy goals. These findings underscore the scientific value of SBA-15 in the advancement of biofuel technology and highlight its potential for industrial applications.Article Highlights: Examines biomass waste as a viable and renewable resource for silica extraction. Evaluates green synthesis approaches for producing SBA-15 from renewable sources. Consider the prospective use of green-synthesised SBA-15 in the advancement of biodiesel production technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Biodiesel production from waste cooking oil is a potential feedstock to alternative fuel sources. Produced alternative fuel sources were to have a strong emphasis on energy efficiency to substitute the declining world supply of fossil fuels while also improving emission characteristics in diesel engine applications. The development of industrialization and mechanization causes increased fossil fuel consumption and its usage. This study aimed at an experimental investigation of biodiesel blended fuel combustion efficiency for single-cylinder diesel engines under varying engine loads at constant engine speed 1500 rpm. The transesterification process was used to produce biodiesel from waste cooking oil using NaOH as catalysts. Biodiesel reaction takes place with oil to methanol ratio of 6:1 at 60 °C reaction temperature for 90 min with 600 rpm stirring speed while 90% yield gained. Eight sample biodiesel blends were prepared with percentage value B5%, B10%, B15%, B20%, B25%, B30%, B35%, B40% v/v and B100% to investigate the effect of biodiesels on engine performances. The experimental result reveals that the mixed biodiesel blends have lower average value in terms of brake torque, brake power, and brake thermal efficiency than diesel fuels as a percentage of 16.79%, 4.08%, and 27.9% respectively. In addition, the average BSFC of biodiesel blends was increased by 4.8% than baseline diesel fuel. Related to exhaust gases emission test results were shows that the average CO and HC emissions decreased by 52.2% and 60% with increasing loads and blends and the increment of CO2 and NOx by 28.1% and 45.4% respectively than baseline fuel with increasing blends and loads. Biodiesel derived from waste cooking oil was less costly and environmentally friendly and viable to substitute petro-diesel.

Abstract This review explores the potential of green synthesised SBA-15 nanomaterials in biodiesel production, focusing on their promising application despite their lack of direct use in this field. The growing global demand for sustainable and renewable energy sources has intensified interest in biodiesel as a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels. Biodiesel, derived from renewable biomass sources such as agricultural residues and waste cooking oils, offers significant environmental benefits, including reduced greenhouse gas emissions. Traditional SBA-15 synthesis involves hazardous chemicals, but green synthesis methods using biomass-derived silica present an eco-friendly approach. This review examines the unique structural properties of SBA-15, such as its high surface area and uniform pore structure, which could improve biodiesel production when used as a catalyst. While the green-synthesised SBA-15 has not yet been applied directly in biodiesel production, this article proposes its potential utility and emphasises the need for future research to validate its effectiveness. This novel approach of directly using SBA-15 as a catalyst emphasises its potential to improve biodiesel production sustainability and efficiency, contributing to waste management and renewable energy goals. These findings underscore the scientific value of SBA-15 in the advancement of biofuel technology and highlight its potential for industrial applications.

Biodiesel, an environmentally degradable and renewable biofuel derived from organic matter, has exhibited its capacity as a viable and sustainable substitute for traditional diesel fuel. Numerous comprehensive investigations have been conducted to assess the effects of biodiesel on internal combustion engines (ICEs), with particular emphasis on diesel engine performance metrics, combustion dynamics, and emission profiles. Biodiesel demonstrates a significant decrease in emissions of particulate matter (PM), hydrocarbon (HC), and carbon monoxide (CO) in diesel engines. The addition of biodiesel has shown a minor decrease in power output and a slight increase in fuel consumption and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions. Nevertheless, the extensive implementation of biodiesel, despite its potential to effectively reduce detrimental emissions, has encountered obstacles stemming from external influences including restricted availability of feedstock, volatile petroleum oil prices, and inadequate governmental backing. This review presents a concise summary of significant advancements in the global adoption of biodiesel from a sustainability perspective. This review provides valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities associated with the advancement of sustainable biofuel technologies by synthesizing the current state of palm biodiesel and examining global trends in biodiesel implementation. The wider adoption of biodiesel can be facilitated by addressing concerns pertaining to feedstock availability, price stability, and policy support. This would allow for the realization of significant environmental advantages and contribute to a more environmentally friendly and sustainable biofuel.

Biodiesel from waste oil is produced using heterogeneous catalyzed transesterification in a fixed bed reactor (FBR). Potassium iodide/calcium oxide/alumina (KI/CaO/Al2O3) catalyst was prepared through the processes of calcination and impregnation. The novel catalyst was analyzed with X‐ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive X‐ray spectrometer (EDX). The design of experiment (DoE) method resulted in a total of 20 experimental runs. The significance of 3 reaction parameters, namely catalyst bed height, methanol to waste oil molar ratio, and residence time, and their combined impact on biodiesel yield is investigated. Both the artificial neural network (ANN) based on artificial intelligence (AI) and the Box‐Behnken design (BBD) based on response surface methodology (RSM) were utilized in order to optimize the process conditions and maximize the biodiesel production. A quadratic regression model was developed to predict biodiesel yield, with a correlation coefficient (R) value of 0.9994 for ANN model and a coefficient of determination (R2) value of 0.9986 for BBD model. The maximum amount of biodiesel that can be produced is 98.88 % when catalyst bed height is 7.87 cm, molar ratio of methanol to waste oil is 17.47 : 1, and residence time is 3.12 h. The results of this study indicate that ANN and BBD models can effectively be used to optimize and synthesize the highest %yield of biodiesel in a FBR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiesel is a sustainable and renewable fuel generated from renewable resources, including vegetable oil or animal fats. It is thought to be a non-toxic fuel that degrades gradually and causes no harm to the environment. In the present study, a non-conventional supercritical method for industrial biodiesel production is investigated. The non-conventional method refers to a single-step interesterification reaction between triglycerides and methyl acetate resulting in methyl esters of fatty acids and triacetin as a secondary product. Process flowsheet modeling, using CHEMCAD chemical engineering software, was used as an investigation tool. The production capacity was set to 25,000 kg/h biodiesel. Methyl acetate requested in the biodiesel production is produced from methanol esterification with acetic acid using an intensified reactive distillation unit. Methanol, in turn, is obtained using synthetic gas derived from biomass as a raw material, the process representing a new method at the industrial level to solve problems related to the energy that is required, storage and disposal of residual materials, and pollution through the release of pollutants into the air. The methanol synthesis process is similar to the one based on natural gas, consisting of three main steps, namely: (i) synthesis gas production, followed by (ii) methanol production, and (iii) methanol purification. Acetic acid is an essential chemical product, generated in the proposed approach by a sustainable method with low energy consumption and low air emissions, more exactly methanol carbonylation. All the processes previously mentioned: (i) biodiesel production, (ii) methyl acetate production, (iii) acetic acid production, and (iv) methanol production were modeled and simulated, leading to the desired biodiesel productivity (e.g., 25,000 kg/h) with the obtained purity being higher than 99%. Relevant discussions regarding the design assumptions used, the simulation and validation results, as well as other technical issues (i.e., electricity and thermal energy consumption) for the system being simulated, are provided, leading to the conclusion that the proposed route is well suited for the desired application and can deliver significant results. The simulation outcomes have provided confidence in the feasibility and effectiveness of the chosen process design, making it a viable option for further development and implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiesel, an environmentally degradable and renewable biofuel derived from organic matter, has exhibited its capacity as a viable and sustainable substitute for traditional diesel fuel. Numerous comprehensive investigations have been conducted to assess the effects of biodiesel on internal combustion engines (ICEs), with particular emphasis on diesel engine performance metrics, combustion dynamics, and emission profiles. Biodiesel demonstrates a significant decrease in emissions of particulate matter (PM), hydrocarbon (HC), and carbon monoxide (CO) in diesel engines. The addition of biodiesel has shown a minor decrease in power output and a slight increase in fuel consumption and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions. Nevertheless, the extensive implementation of biodiesel, despite its potential to effectively reduce detrimental emissions, has encountered obstacles stemming from external influences including restricted availability of feedstock, volatile petroleum oil prices, and inadequate governmental backing. This review presents a concise summary of significant advancements in the global adoption of biodiesel from a sustainability perspective. This review provides valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities associated with the advancement of sustainable biofuel technologies by synthesizing the current state of palm biodiesel and examining global trends in biodiesel implementation. The wider adoption of biodiesel can be facilitated by addressing concerns pertaining to feedstock availability, price stability, and policy support. This would allow for the realization of significant environmental advantages and contribute to a more environmentally friendly and sustainable biofuel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated biodiesel production via the transesterification of grapeseed oil with plasma-modified biomass-based catalysts originating from starfish. Dried starfish was first converted into magnesium and calcium oxide through heat treatment and then further modified by plasma engineering to improve the catalyst's surface area and active sites via zinc addition. The Zn content was added via plasma engineering in the ratios of starfish (Mg0.1Ca0.9CO3): ZnO varying from 5:1, 10:1, to 20:1. The structure and morphology of the catalyst were confirmed through XRD, SEM, and XPS analysis. After the Zn addition and activation process, the surface area and the basicity of the synthesized catalysts were increased. The plasma-modified catalyst showed the highest basicity at the ratio of 10:1. Based on HPLC analyses, the optimized biodiesel yield in transesterification demonstrated 97.7% in fatty acid conversion, and its catalytic performance maintained 93.2% even after three repeated runs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biodiesel is a promising alternative fuel for diesel engines that provides energy security and significant environmental benefits. But its commercialization is restricted due to the cost and quality as compared to diesel fuel. To address the above, Neochloris oleoabundans microalgae oil, a non-edible, cost-effective, and underutilized third-generation feedstock, is used to produce superior biodiesel by the transesterification reaction using a hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) approach. In this research work, the transesterification model for microalgae biodiesel production is optimized through genetic algorithm (GA) and response surface methodology (RSM) using MATLAB R2020a and Design Expert 8.0.7.1, respectively. Four process input variables (operating pressure (0.5–2.5 bar), catalyst concentration (0.5–1.5 wt.%), reaction time (5–25 minutes), and molar ratio (3:1 to 7:1)) and a five-level L30 array were developed to construct a statistical model. Biodiesel yield and major properties like density, kinematic viscosity, calorific value, and flash point are the model responses. The optimum conditions for microalgae biodiesel production were operating pressure of 2.43 bar, KOH catalyst concentrations of 1.22 wt. %, reaction time of 15.54 minutes, molar ratio of 5.61:1 and at 60°C fixed reaction temperature. The optimum value of response, such as biodiesel yield, was 99.80%, the density was 0.882 g/cc, the kinematic viscosity was 4.06 cst, the calorific value was 41.72 MJ/kg, and the flash point was 146.64 °C. RSM and GA predicted results were validated experimentally. The reaction time for biodiesel produced by HC in the same settings as the conventional method was reduced by 85%. Due to its faster processing time, the HC approach is preferred to the conventional method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of green heterogeneous catalysts that are obtained from waste agricultural biomass can make the production of biodiesel more economical. In this research, three solid base heterogeneous catalysts (Catalyst A, B, and C) were synthesized from kola nut pod husks, and the synergistic effects of the elemental composition on catalytic activities for biodiesel production were studied. The results revealed a high surface area of Catalysts A, B, and C at 419.90 m2/g, 430.54 m2/g, and 432.57 m2/g, respectively. Their corresponding pore diameters are 3.53 nm, 3.48 nm, and 3.32 nm, showing that the catalysts are mesoporous in nature. The X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) results revealed the presence of a variety of alkaline earth metals and their corresponding metal oxides in substantial amounts. Catalyst A was produced with the highest concentration of calcium at 40.84 wt.% and calcium oxide at 68.02 mole%. The substantial concentration of other elements, such as potassium, magnesium, and aluminum, and their corresponding metal oxides are the proof of high catalytic activity of the produced green catalysts. The high CaO contents of all three produced catalysts and their high surface areas indicate their strong potential for good catalytic activities applied to the synthesis of biodiesel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microalgae technology is a viable solution for environmental conservation (carbon capture and wastewater treatment) and energy production. However, the nutrient cost, slow-kinetics, and low biosorption capacity of microalgae hindered its application. To overcome them, algal-biochar (BC) can be integrated with microalgae to treat textile wastewater (TWW) due to its low cost, its ability to rapidly adsorb pollutants, and its ability to serve as a nutrient source for microalgal-growth to capture CO2 and biodiesel production. Chlorella vulgaris (CV) and algal-BC were combined in this work to assess microalgal growth, carbon capture, TWW bioremediation, and biodiesel production. Results showed the highest optical density (3.70 ± 0.07 OD680), biomass productivity (42.31 ± 0.50 mg L−1 d−1), and dry weight biomass production (255.11 ± 6.01 mg L−1) in an integrated system of CV-BC-TWW by capturing atmospheric CO2 (77.57 ± 2.52 mg L−1 d−1). More than 99% bioremediation (removal of MB-pollutant, COD, nitrates, and phosphates) of TWW was achieved in CV-BC-TWW system due to biosorption and biodegradation processes. The addition of algal-BC and CV microalgae to TWW not only enhanced the algal growth but also increased the bioremediation of TWW and biodiesel content. The highest fatty acid methylesters (biodiesel) were also produced, up to 76.79 ± 2.01 mg g−1 from CV-BC-TWW cultivated-biomass. Biodiesel's oxidative stability and low-temperature characteristics are enhanced by the presence of palmitoleic (C16:1) and linolenic (C18:3) acids. Hence, this study revealed that the integration of algal-biochar, as a biosorbent and source of nutrients, with living-microalgae offers an efficient, economical, and sustainable approach for microalgae growth, CO2 fixation, TWW treatment, and biodiesel production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main objective of this study was to produce biodiesel utilizing Fe3O4@ZIF-8-CRL as biocatalyst, employing high acid value waste oil. Candida Rugosa lipase (CRL) was immobilized onto a magnetic ZIF-8 organometallic framework through physical adsorption, resulting in significantly enhanced stability and chemical compatibility. The study extensively investigated the impacts of enzyme dosage, alcohol-to-oil ratio, ultrasonic power, temperature, time, and the addition of deep eutectic solvents on the conversion of fatty acid ethyl esters. The findings revealed that under the conditions of biocatalyst addition of 5.7 wt.%, alcohol–oil ratio of 6:1 mmol/g, ultrasonic power of 87.297 W, reaction temperature of 40 °C, and reaction time of 2 h, the innovative biocatalyst facilitated a conversion efficiency of fatty acid ethyl esters reaching 82.06 ± 1.63%, with a retention rate of 74.52% after three cycles. Additionally, characterization of the biocatalyst using a vibrating sample magnetometer and scanning electron microscopy demonstrated its favorable magnetic recovery potential and morphology. Coupled with its straightforward and efficient synthesis, this biocatalyst proves to be competitive in the catalysis of biodiesel preparation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the potential of fused deposition modeling (FDM) three-dimensional (3D) printing techniques for manufacturing catalytic static mixers during biodiesel synthesis. The printed catalytic mixing elements comprises acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic with 15 wt% calcium oxide (CaO) as a solid catalyst. When the reactants flowed through the CaO/ABS mixing device, the blending and acceleration processes were both significantly impacted. Moreover, their characteristics, performance in biodiesel production, reusability, and economy were analyzed. The effects of methanol to oil (M:O) molar ratio, circulation time, and sonication time on methyl ester (ME) purity were also examined. The results showed that CaO crystals were distributed on the CaO/ABS mixer’s surface, which is crucial for catalytic purposes. During circulation process of ME from pretreated sludge palm oil (PSPO), catalytic static mixer (CSM) and CSM coupled with ultrasound (CSM/US) reactors were employed. The full ultrasonic power of CSM/US reactor of 16 × 400 W (total 6400 W) was operated at 20 kHz frequency. Moreover, the continuous and pulse ultrasonic modes of CSM/US reactor were compared to determine the ME purity and electricity consumption for ME production. For the CSM reactor, 12:1 M:O molar ratio and 8.5 h circulation time were recommended to realize 94.2 wt% ME purity. For the CSM/US reactor, 12:1 M:O molar ratio and 2.25 h circulation time were recommended to achieve 96.5 wt% ME purity. Under the pulsed mode operation, ME purity of 95.09 wt% was achieved, with a reduction in electricity consumption by approximately 37.6 % compared to continuous mode operation. Furthermore, the CaO/ABS catalytic static mixer was determined to be reusable for up to three cycles in both CSM and CSM/US reactors. Thus, CaO/ABS catalytic static mixers assure high purity ME production through FDM 3D printing technology with a CaO solid catalyst.

Background: Conventional methods of biodiesel (FAME) synthesis often involve transesterification processes that are catalysed by homogeneous catalysts, which present challenges in terms of catalyst recovery, environmental impact, and production cost. Heterogeneous catalysts, particularly those derived from agricultural waste, have emerged as promising alternatives due to their reusability, environmental friendliness, and cost-effectiveness. Objectives: The study aims to bridge gaps by providing a comprehensive kinetic analysis of biodiesel production using a synthesized and novel, doum-shell catalyst. It incorporates first, second, and third-order rate model kinetics, alongside the determination of some energy parameters. Methods: Doum palm shell (DPS) was characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Atomic Force Microscope (AFM), and then carbonized, ground, and sulfonated to create a biochar catalyst, which was then used in the esterification of palmitic acid (PA) with methanol. Kinetic modelling of the esterification process was performed, followed by deriving thermodynamic parameters using Arrhenius and Eyring-Polanyi equations. Results: Kinetic modelling identified the First-Order reaction as the most appropriate for describing the esterification process at an optimum performing temperature of 55 °С, 180 min reaction time and rate constant, k = 7 · 10-4 min-1. Thermodynamic parameters were derived from the Arrhenius and Eyring-Polanyi equations, providing a deeper understanding of the energy changes involved in the esterification reaction. The activation energy, pre-exponential factor, entropy, enthalpy and free energies obtained for the First-Order, describe the catalysing of the synthesis process by DPS as robust, reversible, non-spontaneous, feasible and energy efficient. In both kinetics and thermodynamics carried out, the Second- and Third-Order of reaction analysis described the experimental data poorly due to lower R2 values comparative to the First-Order rate at 45, 55 and 65 °С. FTIR analysis confirmed the successful conversion of feedstock to biodiesel, with distinct ester functional groups such as, –OH, –SO3H and –COOH groups, identified in the DPS catalyst. Conclusions: This research lays the groundwork for future studies and large-scale implementation of this catalyst in biodiesel production, particularly in regions with abundant doum palm resources. Through comprehensive experimentation and analysis, the carbonized doum-shell catalyst was demonstrated to be a viable and efficient option for FAME synthesis from PA and methanol.

The use of lignocellulosic residues as feedstocks for biofuels production represents an economic and ecofriendly option, since they are generated as byproducts or wastes from different industrial areas. Nevertheless, a pretreatment method aimed at eliminating the lignin content of these residues must be performed. This is required in order to increase cellulose bioavailability, which favors the production of reducing sugars through microbial or enzymatic attack. Some performed pretreatments can be classified as physical, chemical, and physicochemical methods. Although such methods are the most used pretreatments, they are expensive and generate or make use of harmful compounds. Biological methods, by the action of microorganisms or their enzymes for lignin content reduction, may be regarded as an alternative, being cheaper and more friendly to the environment than the aforementioned methods. However, until now, biological pretreatments have not shown the same yield as the previously mentioned methods in both sugar recovery and biofuel production. In that sense, the aim of this work is to review the efficiency of these methods, with the goal of clarifying their advantages and disadvantages for improvement of biofuel production.

This study examined the effect of the Sr concentration in SrK/CaO catalysts based on oyster shells for the transesterification of canola oil. The CaO support was obtained by mixing 800 °C calcined oyster shell and limestone. Then, K and Sr were impregnated simultaneously at three different Sr/(Sr + K) molar ratios, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4, and calcined at 800 °C. XRD, SEM, and Hammett indicators were used to characterize the catalysts. The reaction conditions were 60 °C, 1 h, met/oil = 12.5, and a catalyst loading of 7 wt%. The results showed that a Sr/(Sr + K) = 0.3 produces larger K2Sr(CO3)2 crystals that contribute synergistically to the catalytic activity. At Sr/(Sr + K) > 0.3, the K and Sr are segregated, decreasing the alkaline character and activity. Also, the optimization of WCO transesterification conditions was carried out by Box–Behnken response surface design with SrK/CaO-0.3 catalyst. The theoretical optimal conditions were 70 °C, 1.5 h, and a met/oil = 10, which achieved 79 % of biodiesel yield. Nonetheless, the produced WCO biodiesel did not present acceptable quality, and this reactive system increased the lixiviation of the active phases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to enhance lipid and biofuel productivity from Chlorella minutissima with hematite (a-Fe2O3) nanoparticles (IONPs) as a growth stimulant. The IONPs were synthesized using chemical method and characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis to confirm their structure and composition. The experimental setup involved inoculating various concentrations of IONPs (10, 20, and 30 mg·L-¹) into the microalgal BG-11 growth medium to evaluate their impact on microalgal growth and biodiesel production. Results of this study showed that a concentration of 10 mg·L-¹ of IONPs significantly increased the biomass concentration to 508.1 mg·L-1 over a 20-day cultivation period, achieving the highest biomass production rate of 31.7 mg·L-¹·d-¹ at this concentration. The lipid extracted from the microalgal biomass was subsequently transesterified into biodiesel. Key biodiesel properties, such as cetane number, calorific value, density, and viscosity, were measured to assess fuel quality. The findings demonstrate that incorporating hematite nanoparticles into the microalgal growth medium can significantly boost both lipid content and overall growth, thereby improving biodiesel production. This study suggests that the use of a-Fe2O3 nanoparticles presents a promising approach for scalable and sustainable biofuel production from microalgae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present research work introduces a novel mixture optimization methodology for biodiesel fuels using an Evolutionary Computation method inspired by biological evolution. Specifically, the optimal biodiesel composition is deduced from the application of a nature-inspired adaptive genetic algorithm that first examines percentages of the ingredients in the optimal mixtures. The innovative approach's effectiveness lies in problem simulation with improvements in the evaluation of the specific function and the way to define and tune the genetic algorithm. Environmental imperatives in the era of climate change currently impose the optimized production of alternative environmentally friendly biofuels to replace fossil fuels. Biodiesel in particular, appears to be more attractive in recent years, as it originates from renewable bio-derived resources. The main ingredients of the specific biofuel mixture investigated in this research are diesel and biodiesel (100% from bioresources). The assessment of the new biodiesel examined was performed using a fitness function that estimated both the density and cost of the fuel. Beyond the evaluation criterion of cost, density also influences the suitability of this biofuel for commercial use and market sale. The outcomes from the modeling process can be beneficial in saving cost and time for new biodiesel production by using this novel decision-making tool in comparison with randomized laboratory experimentations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, a packed-bed reactor was used to produce biodiesel from disposed soybean oil using a lipase-nanoparticle bio composite catalyst. During the transesterification process of the 'disposed of/used soybean oil', different nano catalysts were employed such as nanoparticles of Ni-doped ZnO, Fe3O4, Alkylcelite, Poly-acrylonitrile fibres and Poly-acrylonitrile nanofibrous membrane and they were abbreviated as CI, CII, CIII, CIV and CIV respectively. In each case of biodiesel production, there were two levels of process parameters like flow velocity (such as 0.25 mL/min-1.25 mL/min) and the reaction time (20 and 100 h) were considered for analyses. From the derived biofuel, the biodiesel blends were prepared as B50 (50% diesel and 50% biodiesel) and B75 (25% diesel and 75% biodiesel). The synthesis of biofuel results, in the biodiesel conversion of cepacia lipase with Poly-acrylonitrile nanofibrous membrane nanoparticles being recorded at about 85% at a 1.25 mL/min flow rate, which is the maximum biodiesel conversion among five grades. The shortlisted biodiesel performances were analyzed by varying the engine speed, grade and kind of biodiesel, The observed results were analyzed. The B50CIV and B75CIV blends recorded the maximum BSFC at 1800 rpm engine speed. CO2 emission by diesel is about 2.3 vol% was recorded. It is the highest value compared to biodiesel blends (B50 and B75). The emission of NOx with the B50CII blend was 220 ppm at the engine speed of 1800 rpm. Based on the experimental results, B50CIV serves affordable fuel and is recommended among those tested in this investigation for CI engines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Morocco, the production of argan oil generates a natural organic residue available at a low cost, which is known as argan cake. It shows potential as a biodiesel resource due to its substantial oil residue content. A kinetic study of transesterification was conducted to evaluate the potential of argan cake oil (ACO) in producing biodiesel. The obtained activation energy is equal to Ea = 30.85 kJ/mol, and the reaction rate falls within the range of 0.0121 to 0.0241 min−1 at temperatures between 40 and 60 °C. Realizing that the catalyst type has a significant impact on the reaction kinetics, a comparison was made between homogeneous, heterogeneous, and enzymatic catalysts using the multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method. This method was employed to select the catalyst that maximizes biodiesel yield while minimizing cost and environmental impact. Five catalyst types were studied: homogeneous acid and basic catalysts, heterogeneous acid and basic catalysts, and enzymatic catalysts. In the classification process, eight criteria were considered: catalyst sensitivity to free fatty acid (FFA) and water in the raw material, biodiesel yield, reaction rate, glycerol recovery, catalyst recovery and recycling, energy cost, catalyst cost, and environmental impact. The results from the Fuzzy Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to the Ideal Solution (FTOPSIS) showed that the basic heterogeneous catalyst outperforms the other four examined catalysts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of lignocellulosic residues as feedstocks for biofuels production represents an economic and ecofriendly option, since they are generated as byproducts or wastes from different industrial areas. Nevertheless, a pretreatment method aimed at eliminating the lignin content of these residues must be performed. This is required in order to increase cellulose bioavailability, which favors the production of reducing sugars through microbial or enzymatic attack. Some performed pretreatments can be classified as physical, chemical, and physicochemical methods. Although such methods are the most used pretreatments, they are expensive and generate or make use of harmful compounds. Biological methods, by the action of microorganisms or their enzymes for lignin content reduction, may be regarded as an alternative, being cheaper and more friendly to the environment than the aforementioned methods. However, until now, biological pretreatments have not shown the same yield as the previously mentioned methods in both sugar recovery and biofuel production. In that sense, the aim of this work is to review the efficiency of these methods, with the goal of clarifying their advantages and disadvantages for improvement of biofuel production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alkaline earth metal oxide (MgO, CaO, SrO) catalysts supported on BEA zeolite were prepared by a wet impregnation method and tested in the transesterification reaction of rapeseed oil with methanol towards the formation of biodiesel (FAMEs—fatty acid methyl esters). To assess the influence of the SiO2/Al2O3 ratio on the catalytic activity in the tested reaction, a BEA zeolite carrier material with different Si/Al ratios was used. The prepared catalysts were tested in the transesterification reaction at temperatures of 180 °C and 220 °C using a molar ratio of methanol/oil reagents of 9:1. The transesterification process was carried out for 2 h with the catalyst mass of 0.5 g. The oil conversion value and efficiency towards FAME formation were determined using the HPLC technique. The physicochemical properties of the catalysts were determined using the following research techniques: CO2-TPD, XRD, BET, FTIR, and SEM-EDS. The results of the catalytic activity showed that higher activity in the tested process was confirmed for the catalysts supported on the BEA zeolite characterized by the highest silica/alumina ratio for the reaction carried out at a temperature of 220 °C. The most active zeolite catalyst was the 10% CaO/BEA system (Si/Al = 300), which showed the highest triglyceride (TG) conversion of 90.5% and the second highest FAME yield of 94.6% in the transesterification reaction carried out at 220 °C. The high activity of this system is associated with its alkalinity, high value of the specific surface area, the size of the active phase crystallites, and its characteristic sorption properties in relation to methanol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work focuses on the study of biodiesel production from commercial rapeseed oil and methanol via transesterification reactions on monometallic copper and bimetallic copper–noble metal (platinum, ruthenium) catalysts supported on BEA zeolite. The catalysts were prepared by wet impregnation method on the hydrogen form of BEA zeolite. As part of the study, the physicochemical and catalytic properties of the prepared catalytic materials were determined. The catalytic activity tests were carried out in the transesterification reaction over prepared catalysts at 220 °C for 2 h in an autoclave. The physicochemical properties of the obtained catalysts were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), specific surface area and porosity (BET), a scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM–EDS) and temperature-programmed desorption of ammonia (TPD-NH3) method. The results of the catalytic activity showed the promotional effect of the noble metal on the TG conversion and FAME efficiency of copper catalysts in the biodiesel production process. The most active catalyst turned out to be the calcined 5%Cu–1%Ru/BEA catalyst, which showed the highest TG conversion of 85.7% and the second highest FAME efficiency of 58.4%. The high activity of this system is explained by its surface acidity and large specific surface area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates continuous biodiesel production from refined palm oil (RPO) using a 250-cm-length double-pipe static mixer (DPSM), mixing elements were employed first with the low-pressure drop static mixer (LPD-SM) and second with the Kenics Static Mixer (K-SM). Four key independent parameters in the transesterification reaction - methanol (MeOH) to RPO molar ratio, KOH concentration, static mixer length, and residence time - were optimized to achieve the desired methyl ester content (%E, wt.%), set at 96.5 wt.%. From response surface methodology (RSM), The optimal conditions of LPD-SM were MeOH to RPO molar ratio at 5:1, KOH concentration at 0.76 wt.% of RPO, 250 cm static mixer length, and 7.7 min residence time. Conversely, K-SM showed optimal conditions with MeOH to RPO molar ratio at 5.5:1, KOH concentration at 0.81 wt.% of RPO, 250 cm static mixer length, and 7.2 min residence time. Statistical analysis revealed KOH concentration as the most influential parameter, followed by residence time, static mixer length, and MeOH to RPO molar ratio, respectively. In summary, LPD-SM outperformed K-SM in reducing the amount of alcohol and catalyst consumption while maintaining %E at the set point, highlighting its potential as an efficient, sustainable approach for biodiesel production from RPO using a DPSM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present review primarily focuses on the perspectives and state-of-the-art of heterogeneous catalysts, nanocatalysts, biocatalysts, bifunctional catalysts, metal-organic frameworks (MOF), and covalent organic frameworks (COF) for biodiesel production. The environmental concern associated with nonrenewable fossil fuels has led to finding alternative energy sources that can be used to meet global energy demands. Biofuels such as biodiesel are one of the energy sources that could replace fossil fuels. The homogeneous acid and base catalysts are generally used for commercial biodiesel production. However, homogeneous catalysts have downsides such as toxicity, corrosion, soap formation, high wastewater output, and non-reusability. Consequently, heterogeneous acid and base catalysts have been introduced that are less sensitive to moisture and free fatty acids (FFAs), easily separated and recovered, and reusable. Recently, novel catalysts such as waste biomass-derived mesoporous heterogeneous catalysts, chemically synthesized heterogeneous catalysts, metal ion-doped heterogeneous catalysts, bifunctional acid-base catalysts, and carbonaceous char-supported hetero catalysts, nanocatalysts, MOF and COF catalysts have potential to replace homogeneous base catalysts, aid in sustainable and cost-effective biodiesel production. This review provides insights into the recent advancement of various catalysts, catalyst preparation and operations, type of catalysts and suitability, catalyst efficiency, life cycle assessment, catalyst-associated challenges, and prospects for sustainable biodiesel production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, a packed-bed reactor was used to produce biodiesel from disposed soybean oil using a lipase-nanoparticle bio composite catalyst. During the transesterification process of the ‘disposed of/used soybean oil’, different nano catalysts were employed such as nanoparticles of Ni-doped ZnO, Fe3O4, Alkylcelite, Poly-acrylonitrile fibres and Poly-acrylonitrile nanofibrous membrane and they were abbreviated as CI, CII, CIII, CIV and CIV respectively. In each case of biodiesel production, there were two levels of process parameters like flow velocity (such as 0.25 mL/min-1.25 mL/min) and the reaction time (20 and 100 h) were considered for analyses. From the derived biofuel, the biodiesel blends were prepared as B50 (50% diesel and 50% biodiesel) and B75 (25% diesel and 75% biodiesel). The synthesis of biofuel results, in the biodiesel conversion of cepacia lipase with Poly-acrylonitrile nanofibrous membrane nanoparticles being recorded at about 85% at a 1.25 mL/min flow rate, which is the maximum biodiesel conversion among five grades. The shortlisted biodiesel performances were analyzed by varying the engine speed, grade and kind of biodiesel, The observed results were analyzed. The B50CIV and B75CIV blends recorded the maximum BSFC at 1800 rpm engine speed. CO2 emission by diesel is about 2.3 vol% was recorded. It is the highest value compared to biodiesel blends (B50 and B75). The emission of NOx with the B50CII blend was 220 ppm at the engine speed of 1800 rpm. Based on the experimental results, B50CIV serves affordable fuel and is recommended among those tested in this investigation for CI engines.

The greater demand for energy has led to a surge in the utilization of fossil fuels, resulting in the rapid depletion of crude oil sources. Regrettably, this trend has engendered a significant negative environmental impact, primarily due to the release of unwanted carbon emissions into the atmosphere. Biodiesel has been considered a suitable substitute for fossil fuels owing to its availability from renewable feedstock, less polluting, sustainable and high biodegradability. However, the production of biodiesel from edible oils is very expensive due to the food versus fuel competition of the oil feedstock. Therefore, non-edible oils such as rubber seed oils have been considered suitable biodiesel feedstock due to their wide availability and abundance in different parts of the world. Rubber plantations are widely cultivated for their latex and the discarded seeds from rubber plantations could be considered as a potential source for biodiesel production. Hence, this review considers the extraction of oil from rubber seeds, the free fatty acid compositions, and physicochemical properties. It investigates biodiesel production from rubber seed oil and explores the variations in its physicochemical properties. The various kinds of catalysts that have been developed for biodiesel production from rubber seed oil were examined; the techno-economic analysis was discussed; the merits and challenges associated with the use of rubber seed oil as a suitable feedstock for biodiesel production were analyzed.

Abstract Background Biodiesel, an emerging sustainable and renewable clean energy, has garnered considerable attention as an alternative to fossil fuels. Although lipases are promising catalysts for biodiesel production, their efficiency in industrial-scale application still requires improvement. Results In this study, a novel strategy for multi-site mutagenesis in the binding pocket was developed via FuncLib (for mutant enzyme design) and Rosetta Cartesian_ddg (for free energy calculation) to improve the reaction rate and yield of lipase-catalyzed biodiesel production. Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase (TLL) with high activity and thermostability was obtained using the Pichia pastoris expression system. The specific activities of the mutants M11 and M21 (each with 5 and 4 mutations) were 1.50- and 3.10-fold higher, respectively, than those of the wild-type (wt–TLL). Their corresponding melting temperature profiles increased by 10.53 and 6.01 °C, $$T_{50}^{15}$$ T 50 15 (the temperature at which the activity is reduced to 50% after 15 min incubation) increased from 60.88 to 68.46 °C and 66.30 °C, and the optimum temperatures shifted from 45 to 50 °C. After incubation in 60% methanol for 1 h, the mutants M11 and M21 retained more than 60% activity, and 45% higher activity than that of wt–TLL. Molecular dynamics simulations indicated that the increase in thermostability could be explained by reduced atomic fluctuation, and the improved catalytic properties were attributed to a reduced binding free energy and newly formed hydrophobic interaction. Yields of biodiesel production catalyzed by mutants M11 and M21 for 48 h at an elevated temperature (50 °C) were 94.03% and 98.56%, respectively, markedly higher than that of the wt–TLL (88.56%) at its optimal temperature (45 °C) by transesterification of soybean oil. Conclusions An integrating strategy was first adopted to realize the co-evolution of catalytic efficiency and thermostability of lipase. Two promising mutants M11 and M21 with excellent properties exhibited great potential for practical applications for in biodiesel production.

This study examines the operating pressure effect on the manufacture of biodiesel from Palm Kernel Fatty Acid Distillate (PKFAD) by using para-Toluene Sulfonic Acid (PTSA) catalyst. The operating pressures studied are the vacuum pressures of 70 kPa, 80 kPa, 90 kPa, and 100 kPa, which varied with PTSA concentrations of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%, and the molar ratios of methanol and PKFAD are 5:1, 6:1, 7:1, 8:1, 9:1, and 10:1. Biodiesel production from PKFAD was carried out with reaction duration of 120 minutes and reaction temperature at 50 0C. The amounts of fatty acids converted to biodiesel were calculated based on the initial and acid numbers after the esterification reaction. The results show that a vacuum pressure of 70 kPa to 100 kPa provides a conversion above 96% for all catalyst concentrations and all methanol and PKFAD molar ratios. The highest conversion of PKFAD to biodiesel of 98.6% is obtained at an operating pressure of 80 kPa, a catalyst concentration of 25%, and the molar ratio of methanol and PKFAD is 10:1. The biodiesel characteristics obtained in this study have met the standards of the American Society for Testing Materials.

Catalysts play a crucial role in the transesterification reaction involved in the production of biodiesel. It is vitally important to conduct research on catalysts with high efficiency, competitive pricing, and ease of manufacture. Chitosan (CS) is one of the biodegradable and sustainable polymers used in a variety of fields due to its wide availability, low environmental impact, and diverse functional group composition. This study involved the synthesis of N-(2-hydroxy) propyl-3-trimethyl ammonium chitosan chloride (HTCC) via the interaction of CS with glycidyl trimethylammonium chloride (GTMAC). Then, an alkaline catalyst based on a polymer can be easily constructed for use in biodiesel production by combining HTCC with sodium metasilicate (SMS). Epichlorohydrin (ECH) was used as a chemical linker between the HTCC chains to make SMS more stable in the polymer. The synthesized polymer-based catalyst was successfully identified using techniques including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDX), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) technique. Response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to analyze the effect of various experimental conditions on the percentage of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) produced in a batch reactor. The molar ratio of methanol/waste vegetable oil (WVO), amount of catalyst, and reaction time were considered in order to maximize the %yield of FAME. Highest FAME yield of 97.74 % was achieved via optimizing the following parameters: 9:1 molar ratio of methanol/WVO, 3.5 wt.% catalyst amount, and 1.5 h reaction time. The HTCC-based solid catalysts shown excellent catalytic activity for the transesterification of WVO. In addition, these catalysts displayed excellent reusability for up to 5 consecutive runs without experiencing a substantial activity drop.

While fossil fuel resources are limited, the increasing demand for energy in the industrial and transportation sectors has led to using renewable fuels. This study aims to improve biodiesel production from sunflower oil by combining cold plasma and oscillatory systems through a transesterification process. The four main operational variables are examined, such as molar ratio (MR) (1:6–1:12), catalyst concentration (CC) (0.5–1.25 wt%), plasma exposure time (PET) (25–75 s), and residence time (RT) (30–90 s). The smooth periodic constriction reactor's physical attributes, including the diameter of the tube (D), the diameter of the constricted region (d0), and the distance between baffles (l), as well as the properties of the cold plasma system, are determined. The data analysis presents that PET, RT, CC, and MR have the greatest effect on efficiency. This optimization indicates that by exposing the reaction mixture to plasma for 59.99 s, adding 1.09% by weight of the catalyst, and with a MR of 7.17 in 86.43 s, biodiesel with a conversion percentage of 94.75% is produced. The results show that the optimum point matches with EN 14214 standard. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A functionalized catalyst for catalyzed biodiesel production via a heterogeneous route is a highly focused area to lower the cost of production and mitigate the drawbacks of homogeneously catalyzed reactions. Production aspects such as parameter study, kinetics modeling, and simulation of continuous process flowsheets incorporating kinetic parameters are scarce in the literature. In the current work, a sulfonic group‐functionalized porous carbonaceous catalyst based on corncob was used for the esterification of oleic acid. The Langmuir‐Hinshelwood‐Hougen‐Watson (LHHW) kinetic model was found to best fit to correlate the experimental data and thus applied to deduce the kinetic parameters. The obtained kinetic parameters were incorporated into the Aspen Plus simulator to simulate the continuous biodiesel production process. The catalyst showed a strong affinity for oleic acid which enhances the reaction rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, Scenedesmus sp. ASK22's growth, lipid productivity and nutrient removal capacity were examined in indoor bench-scale and outdoor pilot-scale experiments using different culture media. The possibility of producing biodiesel from Scenedesmus sp. ASK22 was explored, and the physicochemical parameters of the biodiesel produced were compared to those of Indian petro-diesel. The findings revealed that in an indoor bench-scale culture, the maximal biomass concentration can approach 3.44 g L−1, when compared to the outdoor pilot-scale (2.09 g L−1), using nutrients supplemented simulated dairy effluent (NSDE) as a culture medium. Moreover, as compared to the BG11 medium, the cost of NSDE medium was ~3–4.7-fold lower. Maximum N-NO3−1, P-PO4−3 and chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiency obtained in indoor culture conditions was 99.19%, 95.78% and 95.00%, respectively, compared to that of 95.10%, 84.87% and 92.50%, respectively, for outdoor conditions using NSDE as Scenedesmus sp. ASK22 culture medium. C16/C18 methyl esters make up most of the Scenedesmus sp. ASK22–derived biodiesel. Finally, the qualities of the produced biodiesel and blends were within the approved biodiesel standard specification, showing that Scenedesmus sp. ASK22 culture in dairy effluent has a lot of potential for scaling up for high-quality biodiesel production and dairy effluent treatment. The results demonstrated the potential of Scenedesmus sp. ASK22 to become feedstock of an integrated wastewater treatment and superior quality biodiesel production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Post-pandemic inflationist pressures, climate changes and extremes, regional conflicts, and soaring food prices caused the food crisis to increase rapidly worldwide. This global problem directs producers and researchers to use oils used as feedstock in biodiesel production effectively. In this context, it is important to assay the transesterification parameters and conduct new optimization studies to increase biodiesel yield. In this study, methyl ester was produced from hemp oil by transesterification using sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Next, classical optimization study was carried out to determine the effects of catalyst amount, alcohol:oil molar ratio, reaction temperature, and reaction time variables on biodiesel yield. Secondly, the cubic spline mathematical model (CSMM) and polynomial regression mathematical model (PRMM) were applied to the first data of this optimization. Among these optimization methods, the utmost biodiesel yield registered was 96.115% at hemp seed oil (HSO):methanol molar ratio of 5.59:1, catalyst concentration of 0.531 wt%, reaction temperature of 42.5 °C, reaction time of 62.1 min, and agitation intensity of 600 rpm at PRMM. Some vital fuel properties obtained from HSO biodiesels as a result of three optimizations satisfied the EN 14214 standard. The results illustrated that the optimal yields from CSMM and PRMM are 0.765% and 1.065% higher, respectively, according to the maximum efficiency obtained from the classical optimization. The outcomes showed that CSMM and PRMM are cost-effective, easy to handle, and promising new approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid depletion of fossil fuel reserves and rising greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions have necessitated research into low-cost renewable energy sources, with a focus on algal-derived biofuels. Biodiesel, a sustainable alternative fuel, can be derived from a variety of biological sources Microalgae-based biodiesel production offers an innovative method of generating renewable and sustainable energy. By utilizing advanced cultivation techniques, such as photobioreactors and open pond systems, microalgae can be grown efficiently and in large quantities. Furthermore, various methods, such as lipid extraction and transesterification, are employed to convert the lipid-rich microalgae biomass into biodiesel. However, to make microalgae-based biodiesel production more cost-effective and sustainable, several challenges need to be addressed, such as higher production costs, reduced productivity rates, and potential environmental impacts. Future opportunities lie in creating cost-effective and sustainable methods for cultivating and harvesting microalgae, improving lipid yields, and creating effective conversion methods. Overall, microalgae-based biodiesel production shows promise as a renewable and sustainable energy source. However, further research and development must take place to realize its full potential and reap its rewards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study introduces an innovative approach to sustainable biodiesel production using mussel shell-derived calcium oxide (CaO) as a catalyst for converting Jatropha curcas oil into biodiesel. By repurposing waste mussel shells, the research aims to provide an eco-friendly and cost-effective solution for environmentally responsible biodiesel production, aligning with global standards. The study involves characterizing the catalyst, optimizing reaction conditions, and achieving a remarkable 99.36% Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) yield, marking a significant step toward cleaner and more economically viable energy sources. Biodiesel, recognized for its lower emissions, is produced through transesterification using mussel shell-derived CaO as a sustainable catalyst. This research contributes to cleaner and economically viable energy sources, emphasizing the importance of sustainable energy solutions and responsible catalytic processes. This research bridges the gap between waste management, catalyst development, and sustainable energy production, contributing to the ongoing global shift towards cleaner and more economically viable energy sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The consumption of fossil fuels has experienced a significant increase in recent decades, despite the various challenges it poses, including air pollution, environmental degradation, health issues, and limited resources. In order to mitigate these concerns and capitalize on the environmental benefits and availability of alternative energy sources, biofuels, such as biodiesel, have emerged as viable substitutes for fossil fuels. Biodiesel production, however, is a complex process that involves identifying intricate nonlinear relationships between input and output data. To effectively design, manage, control, optimize, and monitor biodiesel production systems, accurate and efficient modeling tools like machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) are necessary. Among the different modeling methods used in biodiesel production, machine learning has shown great potential in providing highly accurate predictions. Inspired by the autolearning and self-improving capabilities of the human brain, machine learning techniques offer superior performance in solving the complex challenges associated with (trans)esterification processes, physicochemical properties, and real-time monitoring of biodiesel systems. Applications of machine learning in the production phase encompass optimization and estimation of biodiesel quality, determination of process conditions and quantities, estimation of emissions composition and temperature, and analysis of motor performance. Key input parameters include oil and catalyst types, methanol-to-oil ratio, catalyst concentration, reaction time, domain, and frequency, while the output parameter of interest is fatty methyl acid ester. This paper presents a comprehensive review that discusses the advantages, disadvantages, and diverse applications of machine learning technologies in biodiesel production. It primarily focuses on recently published articles spanning from 2010 to 2021, with the aim of providing valuable insights for decision-making, optimization, modeling, control, monitoring, and forecasting of biodiesel production processes. By leveraging machine learning techniques, biodiesel producers can enhance their operational efficiency, improve product quality, and make informed decisions to ensure the sustainability and effectiveness of biodiesel production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to predict and optimize the biodiesel production yield and its effective utilization in a biogas-powered dual-fuel mode diesel engine. The transesterification process is optimized through response surface methodology and a genetic algorithm (GA). By using Central Composite Design, an L30 orthogonal array was developed to explore the significance of four process parameters: molar ratio (3:1–9:1), catalyst concentration (0.5–1.5% wt.), reaction temperature (45–65 °C), reaction time (45–105 min), and their combined effect on biodiesel production. The optimal conditions for producing biodiesel through GA were a molar ratio of 7.62:1 with a catalyst concentration of 0.50 wt%, a reaction temperature of 65 °C, a reaction time of 105 min, and an optimized yield of 98.98% (by weight). This study also intends to determine the viability of using microalgae biodiesel and diesel blends (BD10D90 and BD20D80) as pilot fuel and biogas as a primary fuel by changing its mass flow rate (0.16 L/min, 0.33 L/min, and 0.50 L/min) in the dual fuel engine mode. The BSFC of the engine was seen to have increased, although the BTE was significantly lower in the dual-fuel mode compared to standard diesel. The combined effect of biodiesel and biogas reduced NOx and smoke emissions; however, HC and CO emissions were on the higher side. Thus, introducing biogas as a primary fuel and blending biodiesel with diesel as a pilot fuel in the engine may have the potential to meet future energy needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]