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(1999). The 1998 elections in Hungary: Third time lucky for the young democrats. Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics: Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 111-125.

The Hungarian Revolution of 1956: Reform, Revolt and Repression edited by Gyorgy Litvan. London: Longman, 1996. Pp.xv + 221; chronology, glossary, bibliography, index. £42 (hardback); £13.99 (paperback). ISBN 0 582 21505 6 and 21504 8

In many respects the failure to develop and strengthen civil initiatives and popular participation, together with the failure to create an active and independent civil society, represents a new, post‐communist ‘betrayal by the intellectuals’. The latter have not openly rejected the concept of ‘civil society’, but they have sought to appropriate it, redefining it to refer to their own activities and associations, and thus monopolizing its use to legitimize their own behaviour.

(1997). From death to resurrection: The metamorphosis of power in Eastern Europe. Critique: Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 47-84.

Many of the parties of Hungary's new democratic political system have their origins in factions either of the previous ruling party or of movements of opposition to the party‐state. In these cases, factions gave birth to parties. Subsequently, however, the new parties have themselves been subject to factionalism, to internal conflicts and splits, but in all cases party unity has prevailed over factional conflict and dissent, while factions that have broken away to form independent parties have invariably been effectively marginalized. The article traces the history of factionalism within each of Hungary's six main parliamentary parties between the two parliamentary elections of 1990 and 1994, and in so doing demonstrates that factionalism has not served to undermine democratization. On the contrary, in certain cases factions have played integrative roles in maintaining party unity, and in other cases factions have been able to coexist healthily within larger parties.

So far, the countries of the former communist eastern Europe have avoided a reversion to authoritarian rule. Nevertheless, the immense difficulties of establishing functioning democracy have been recognized in the wake of the euphoria of 1989, and fledgling democracy is not yet secure. Indeed, while many of the appurtenances of democracy are apparent, evidence also suggests that transfers of allegiance, personal conflicts, disintegration and fragmentation are hindering the establishment of solid parties, a tendency that is exacerbated by continuing undemocratic values and attitudes.

Post‐Communist Transition: Emerging Pluralism in Hungary edited by Andras Bozoki, Andras Korosenyi and George Schopflin. London: Pinter, 1992. Pp.xii + 196; index. £35 (hardback). ISBN 1 85567 014 3 Osszeomlas utan (After the Collapse) by Laszlo Keri. Budapest: Kossuth, 1991. Pp.162; bibliography. 160 Ft. ISBN 963 09 3537 6 Hungary: The Rise and Fall of Feasible Socialism by Nigel Swain. London: Verso, 1992. Pp.viii + 264; index; notes; tables. £13.95 (paperback). ISBN 0 86091569 7 Democracy and Political Transformation: Theories and East‐Central European Realities edited by Gyorgy Szoboszlai. Budapest: Hungarian Political Science Association, 1991. Pp.352. ISBN 963 04 1198 9 Magyarorszag Politikai Evkonyve 1988 (Political Yearbook of Hungary 1988) edited by Sandor Kurtan, Sandor Peter and Laszlo Vass. Budapest: R‐Forma, 1989. Pp.840; index. 179 Ft. ISSN 0864 7755 Magyarorszag Politikai Evkonyve 1990 (Political Yearbook of Hungary 1990) edited by Sandor Kurtan, Sandor Peter and Laszlo Vass. Budapest: Aula...

The working class has been a very important actor over the last century of Hungarian history, as a consideration of its origins and political traditions in the pre‐socialist period shows. The failure of the revolution of 1956 in which the Workers' Councils played a prominent role was fundamental to the ‘proletarianization’ which ensued under Kadar. However workers have maintained some resources of countervailing power, and the legacy of the revolution remains a potent source of inspiration, not infinitely manipulable by the newly emerging political elites.