Search

The way of disposing of rock mineral material has a significant impact on subsequent spontaneous vegetation succession, soil properties, and respiration. We compared seven spontaneously vegetated samples from a large (2 km2) borrow pit used to dispose of the byproducts of a hard coal mine with seven plots from four coal mine spoil heap piles. We used BIOLOG EcoPlates to assess the microbial catabolic activity of the substrate. The substrate in the borrow pit was characterized by higher water content and lower temperature compared to the heap pile substrate. The borrow pit had a more diverse plant community structure. Higher Rao's quadratic entropy, functional richness, and functional divergence were also calculated from plant functional traits in borrow pit samples. Although borrow pit samples showed higher total microbial biomass, bacteria/fungi ratio, and gram+/gram− ratio, and heap pile samples showed higher soil enzymatic activity, microbial functional diversity, and catabolic activity, these differences were not significant. Soil respiration from the borrow pit substrate was two folds higher. The borrow pit method of disposing of rock mineral material can be suggested to speed up spontaneous vegetation succession. This research provides new insights into the effects of burying hard coal byproducts in borrow pits and offers guidance for the management of hard coal mining. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in Europe, but the excavation of hard coal has covered large areas with disposed rock waste, and turned the natural habitats into disturbed novel ecosystems with harsh conditions differ in time and space. To examine the spontaneous complex successional gradient, we studied a large number of post coalmine heaps in Upper Silesia, which differ in vegetation type and age. Cluster analysis based on plant community composition (367 species in total) separated all surveyed plots on coal mining spoil heaps with herbaceous vegetation from Late Stage (LS) forests aged 14--56 years. Furthermore, the herbaceous vegetation was sub-grouped to three stages: Initial Stage (IS) aged 2--5 years, Early Stage (ES) aged 3--8 years and Mid-Stage (MS) aged 5--12 years. MS vegetation was characterised by the highest species richness and diversity (47 and 2.79) compared to ES (30 and 2.18) and IS (9 and 1.6), but higher species number and a similar diversity index occurred in LS (37 and 2.81). Functional diversity (FD) and community weighted mean (CWM) of nine functional traits showed higher (23.1) functional richness, higher (0.72) functional divergence, higher (4.5) functional dispersion, and higher value (24.4) of Rao's quadratic entropy in LS compared to those calculated from the first three stages. Species at the initial successional stage (IS) were characterised by lower canopy height, seed mass, higher lateral spread, and specific leaf area (SLA). Additionally, the lowest (0.22 mg CO2 per hour per square metre) soil respiration (Sr) rate was recorded from IS compared to (0.53, 0.82 and 1.00) from ES, LS and MS, respectively. The soil water content (SWC) was the most important factor affecting the soil respiration, while the soil temperature (St) did not follow the well-studied relationship between soil respiration and soil temperature. Our spatial and temporal analyses illustrated changes in plant community assembly processes in the course of spontaneous vegetation succession on post coalmine spoil heaps. The importance of trait mediated abiotic filtration in community assembly in initial-, early-, and mid-stages of succession with an increase in competitive exclusion at the late successional stage was emphasized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the discussion about sustainable forestry, a key role is played by the development of ecosystem services, including ecological, social, and economic ones, in which biodiversity and carbon (C) sequestration are among the most important. Afforestation of disturbed and post-mining sites is one of the ways to minimize the negative impact of civilization on the environment. Optimizing C sequestration strategies at post-mining sites plays a crucial role in promoting ecosystem recovery, supporting climate change mitigation, and enabling C offsetting. In this study, we compared the C storage in the soil and plant biomass of forest ecosystems developed on coal-mine heaps for different scenarios of reclamation and succession. We tested combinations of sites (i.e., non-reclaimed sites on bare carboniferous rock [BR] and sites reclaimed by applying topsoil [TS]) and successional woodland and tree plantation. The estimated potential for total C storage (in the soil + biomass) for TS sites ranged from 68.13 to 121.08 Mg ha−1, of which 52.20–102.89 Mg ha−1 was stored in the soil and 12.09–20.15 Mg ha−1 in the biomass. In the non-reclaimed sites on BR, the total C storage was much higher, amounting to 523.14 Mg ha−1 (507.66 Mg ha−1 being in the soil), which was due to the geogenic coal content in the BR. However, the C storage in the biomass (15.48 Mg ha−1) and litter (5.91 Mg ha−1) was similar to the amounts obtained from the reclaimed sites. The number of species did not differ statistically significantly between the analyzed variants. On average, 14 species were recorded in the plots. The average Shannon–Wiener index (H') value was higher for sites with BR (1.99) than TS variants on reclaimed plots (1.71). The lowest H' value was for those plots with Robinia pseudacacia in the stand. One of the main implications of the obtained results for sustainable forestry is the perspective of using succession in the recovery of a disturbed ecosystem. We noted that woodlands from succession on BR are highly biodiverse, have high C sequestration potential, and do not require time-consuming reclamation treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coal mine heaps represent unique novel environments, suitable for studying plant succession and its influence on the activity of microbes inhabiting the rhizosphere. Our aim was to verify if the functional diversity and catabolic activity of soil microorganisms would increase along with the plant succession from non‐vegetated and forbs‐dominated to grass‐dominated communities. The study was conducted on coal mine heaps located in Upper Silesia (Southern Poland), focusing on non‐vegetated patches, patches dominated by forbs–Tussilago farfara and Daucus carota (in the early stages of succession), and by grasses–Poa compressa and Calamagrostis epigejos (in later stages of primary succession). The catabolic activity and functional diversity of soil microbial communities were analyzed based on community‐level physiological profiles using BIOLOG EcoPlatesTM and the activity of dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, acid phosphatase, and urease. Our results showed that spontaneous vegetation on coal mine heaps strongly affects the physicochemistry of the substrate and the functional diversity of soil microbial communities. Grasses' rhizosphere was hosting more active and functional diversified microbial communities, while non‐vegetated and T. farfara‐vegetated patches were accompanied by a reduced development of soil microbiota. Furthermore, grasses were mainly associated with a substantial delivery of plant litter to the substrate, providing a source of carbon for microorganisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1): The Upper Silesia region of Poland is one of the most extensively altered regions of Europe due to human activity, especially coal mining. (2): We used cluster analysis to examine the floristic composition of three classified forest communities: forests developed on post-coal mine mineral heaps (HF), mixed deciduous forests (DECI), and managed secondary coniferous forests (CON). Vegetation data were collected from 44 randomly selected plots, and plant traits connected with persistence, dispersal, and regeneration were taken from commonly used plant trait databases. (3): Higher species richness, species diversity, and evenness (36, 2.7, and 0.76, respectively) were calculated for HF plots compared with those plots from DECI (22, 1.9, and 0.62) and CON (18, 2.0, and 0.71) plots. Higher functional richness (0.173, 0.76) and functional divergence were determined for HF compared with those calculated for DECI (FRic 0.090, FDiv 0.71) and CON (FRic 0.026, FDiv 0.69). In contrast, the substrate from HF forests had significantly lower soil respiration (0.76 mg-CO2 h/m2) compared with substrates from both CON and DECI forests (0.90 and 0.96 mg-CO2 h/m2, respectively); (4): A set of complex abiotic stresses which plants suffer from on coal mine spoil heaps shaped different patterns of taxonomic and functional diversity. These findings demonstrate the importance of investigating successional aspects and carbon dynamics of de novo forests which have developed on post-coal mine spoil heaps in urban industrial areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary producers and processes of matter and energy flow, reflected by the soil enzyme activity, are the basics of all ecosystem functioning processes. This paper reviews the relationships between the plant diversity, the physicochemical substrate parameters, and the soil enzymatic activity in novel ecosystems of the urban–industrial landscape, where the factors driving soil enzyme activity are not fully understood and still need to be studied. The relationship between the biotic and abiotic factors in the development of novel ecosystems on de novo established habitats, e.g., sites of post-mineral excavation, are shaped in ways unknown from the natural and the semi-natural habitats. The main criteria of de novo established ecosystems are the vegetation patches of the non-analogous species composition created as a result of human impact. The non-analogous species assemblages are associated with different microorganism communities because the biomass and the biochemistry of soil organic matter influence the enzyme activity of soil substrates. Moreover, the soil enzyme activity is an indicator that can dynamically reflect the changes in the microbial community structure dependent on the best-adapted plant species, thanks to the particular traits and individual adaptive adjustments of all the plant species present. This way, soil enzyme activity reflects the sum and the interactions of the elements of the ecosystem structure, irrespective of the vegetation history and the habitat origin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant–microbial relations have not yet been fully disclosed in natural or seminatural ecosystems, nor in novel ecosystems developing spontaneously on post-coal mine heaps. The aim of this study was to determine which factor, biotic (plant taxonomic diversity vs. plant functional diversity) or abiotic (physicochemical substrate parameters), affects the biomass of soil microbial communities the most, as well as soil in situ respiration in novel ecosystems. The study was carried out on unreclaimed plots selected according to four different combinations of taxonomic and functional plant diversity. Additionally, plots on a reclaimed heap served as a comparison between the two management types. The biomass of several soil microbial groups was analysed using phospholipid fatty acids profiles. We detected that soil microbial biomass was more impacted by abiotic parameters (explaining 23% of variance) than plant diversity (explaining 12% of variance). Particularly, we observed that substrate pH was the most important factor shaping microbial community biomass, as shown in the RDA analysis. The highest microbial biomass was found in plots with low taxonomic and functional diversity. This finding can be explained by the fact that these plots represented a more advanced phase of vegetation development in the early stages of plant succession. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyzed the changes in ecosystem functions (soil respiration and Mesostigmata mite abundance, species richness and diversity) on various habitats after flooding by highly mineralized and acidic drainage water with fine As‐rich pyrite sediments, on a fragment of a natural ecosystem. In total, 177 plots that represented six types of habitats (undisturbed: pine mixed forests, Salix spp. thickets, Juncus effusus communities, wet meadows, and disturbed: bare ground and dead Salix spp. thickets) were sampled twice, in June 2019 and September 2020. Our study revealed that flooding affected essential ecosystem parameters, such as soil Mesostigmata mite abundance, species richness and diversity, and soil respiration, via an extreme decrease of soil pH. In total, 968 mites were collected from pooled data from the two samplings. Mite abundance, species richness and diversity were mainly shaped by habitat type and soil pH, and partially by soil respiration. These parameters were lower in disturbed habitats (bare ground and dead Salix spp. thickets) as compared with undisturbed ones. The highest mean mite density was recorded from mixed forests (4750 ± 600 ind. m−2) and wet meadows (2678 ± 361 ind. m−2), whereas the lowest in bare ground (449 ± 113 ind. m−2) and dead Salix spp. thickets (537 ± 146 ind. m−2). We noticed that mite diversity may be helpful to predict future changes in the physicochemical parameters of soils in disturbed areas. The vegetation patches built up by species adapted to grow in habitats characterized by relatively high metal and metalloid content (J. effusus and Salix spp.) represent an intermediate state of function of ecosystems in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three new species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi of the genus Diversispora (phylum Glomeromycota) were described based on their morphology and molecular phylogeny. The phylogeny was inferred from the analyses of the partial 45S rDNA sequences (18S-ITS-28S) and the largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (rpb1) gene. These species were associated in the field with plants colonizing maritime sand dunes of the Baltic Sea in Poland and formed mycorrhiza in single-species cultures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a study of short and long‐term responses of photosynthetic apparatus and anti‐oxidant capacity to complex abiotic stresses of Calamagrostis epigejos and Solidago gigantea commonly occurring in seminatural habitats and novel ecosystems of coal‐mine spoil heaps. Drought/salinity and elevated temperature were dominant abiotic stressors triggering both species‐ and habitat‐specific responses, confirmed by ChlF induction curves analysis. Although in both species a decrease in net photosynthetic rate (A) and transpiration rate (E) in spoil heap were observed, Ce showed higher (A) on both habitats in comparison to Sg. Moreover, we found higher H2O2 concentration in Sg leaves as compared to Ce leaves, large differences in catalase (CAT) activity and the reverse pattern of lipid peroxidation in Sg and Ce populations, suggesting species‐specific differences in antioxidative mechanisms. The Sg individuals developed structural and functional adaptations to protect PSA against drought/salinity stresses (lower leaf chlorophyll, higher flavonoids content, ChlF parameters: Vi, Vj, dVG/dto). The Ce populations have higher values of JIP parameters related to the electron transfer site within PSI. Mechanisms of plant species adaptation to industrial areas are crucial for species selection and planning effective reclamation of them. In novel ecosystems of spoil heaps both species responded differently to complex abiotic stresses in comparison to seminatural ones that enable them to gain success on both sites. They can spontaneously colonize such areas, create permanent plant cover, and produce large amounts of biomass. Further research on plant traits response and adaptation to complex environmental stresses on industrial habitats are needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examination of fungal specimens collected in the Atlantic rain forest ecosystems of Northeast Brazil revealed many potentially new epigeous and semihypogeous glomerocarp-producing species of the phylum Glomeromycota. Among them were two fungi that formed unorganized epigeous glomerocarps with glomoid spores of almost identical morphology. The sole structure that distinguished the two fungi was the laminate layer 2 of their three-layered spore wall, which in spores of the second fungus crushed in PVLG-based mountants contracted and, consequently, transferred into a crown-like structure. Surprisingly, phylogenetic analyses of sequences of the 18S-ITS-28S nuc rDNA and the rpb1 gene indicated that these glomerocarps represent two strongly divergent undescribed species in the family Glomeraceae. The analyses placed the first in the genus Dominikia , and the second in a sister clade to the monospecific generic clade Kamienskia with Kamienskia bistrata. The first species was described here as Dominikia glomerocarpica sp. nov. Because D. glomerocarpica is the first glomerocarp-forming species in Dominikia , the generic description of this genus was emended. The very large phylogenetic distance and the fundamental morphological differences between the second species and K. bistrata suggested us to introduce a new genus, here named as Epigeocarpum gen. nov., and name the new species Epigeocarpum crypticum sp. nov. In addition, our analyses also focused on an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus originally described as Rhizophagus neocaledonicus , later transferred to the genus Rhizoglomus. The analyses indicated that this species does not belong to any of these two genera but represents a new clade at the rank of genus in the Glomeraceae, here described as Silvaspora gen. nov. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of natural processes on deposited mineral material of postindustrial sites is underestimated. Natural vegetation development on mineral material substratum is an unappreciated way of site management. Due to the classification‐based approach to assembly of plant community diversity, remote sensing methods have limited application. We aimed to assess whether remotely sensed data allow for building predictive models, able to recognise vegetation variability along the main gradients of species composition. We assessed vegetation in 321 study plots on four coal‐mine spoil heaps in Silesia (S Poland). We determined the main gradients of species composition using detrended correspondence analysis (DCA), and we identified how DCA scores describe vegetation variability. DCA axes explained 38.5%, 35.4%, 31.4%, and 20.1% of species composition variability. We built machine learning models of DCA scores using multispectral satellite images and airborne laser scanning data as predictors. We obtained good predictive power of models for the first two DCA axes (R2 = 0.393 and 0.443, root mean square errors, RMSE = 0.571 and 0.526) and low power for the third and fourth DCA axes (R2 = 0.216 and 0.064, RMSE = 0.513 and 0.361). These scores allowed us to prepare a vegetation map based on DCA scores, and distinguish meadow‐like from forest‐edge‐like vegetation, and to identify thermophilous and highly productive vegetation patches. Our approach allowed us to account for species composition gradients, which improved remote sensing‐based vegetation surveys. This method may be used for planning future management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grasses have a considerable potential for the adaptation to various, often extreme, habitat conditions. The aim of the work was to present the vegetation diversity of the coal-mine spoil heaps with the dominant share of grasses and to identify the main factors responsible for this diversity in the aspect of post-industrial land reclamation. The communities differ in reference to the species preferences to light, moisture, soil fertility and reaction, which is reflected in the wide variety of microhabitats in the area. It was shown that the increase in the abundance of certain grass species, including Calamagrostis epigejos, Festuca rubra, Festuca arundinacea, Phragmites australis, has a significant negative impact on the species richness, species diversity and the uniformity of distribution of species of the plant community. Preliminary analyses revealed that on post-mining waste, the biomass production of the dominant species is negatively correlated with biodiversity. The knowledge about the biology and ecology of grass species, as well as on the assembly rules may be used in the reclamation of degraded areas. Gaining the knowledge about the vegetation diversity of the coal-mine spoil heaps with the dominant share of grasses can be useful in planning the reclamation works, taking into account natural processes, which leads to the creation of a permanent vegetation cover at a given site, protecting it against water or wind erosion. In the future these areas may provide a number of important ecosystem services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The natural mineral resources (hard coal, sands, dolomites, lead and zinc ores) found in the Silesia and the excavation of them led to significant transformation or even degradation of the environment. The landscape of Upper Silesia was dominated by heaps created as a result of the accumulation of post-mining coal waste. These postindustrial sites are characterised by difficult conditions for the development of plant communities. Nevertheless, the heaps are spontaneously overgrowing and over time, a separate ecosystem can be observed (for heaps). The article analyzes the enzymatic activity of the substrate in relation to the selected dominant grass (Monocots) and herbaceous (Dicots) plant species. The aim of this study was to compare the activity of particular enzymes in soil substratum of the vegetation patches dominated by grass and herbaceous plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This investigation was undertaken to assess the level of environment pollution by biological monitoring. The leaves and bark of popular ornamental treesAcer pseudoplatanusL. andAcer platanoidesL. and soil from the sampling sites were used to perform heavy metals pollution monitoring in urban areas with different pollution sources, as well to investigate the suitability of the leaves and bark as bioindicators of Pb, Zn, Cd and Cu pollution. Plant samples were collected at nine locations classified into three pollution groups based on metal content in the soils. The chosen pollution indices were used to assess the level of contamination according to background values. Soils in the Katowice area are found to be relatively heavily contaminated with Pb, Zn and Cd. Both of the maple tree species did not statistically differ in terms of the investigated elements' concentration in leaves or bark. Only bark samples reflected the pollution level, showing differences between the sampling points, and therefore are recommended for biomonitoring purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jasmonates modulate many growth and developmental processes and act as stress hormones that play an important role in plant tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Therefore, there is a need to identify the genes that are regulated through the jasmonate signalling pathway. Aquaporins, and among them the Tonoplast Intrinsic Proteins (TIPs), form the channels in cell membranes that are responsible for the precise regulation of the movement of water and other substrates between cell compartments. We identified the cis-regulatory motifs for the methyl jasmonate (MeJA)-induced genes in the promoter regions of all the HvTIP genes, which are active in barley seedlings, and thus we hypothesised that the HvTIP expression could be a response to jasmonate signalling. In the presented study, we determined the effect of methyl jasmonate on the growth parameters and photosynthesis efficiency of barley seedlings that had been exposed to different doses of MeJA (15–1000 µM × 120 h) in a hydroponic solution. All of the applied MeJA concentrations caused a significant reduction of barley seedling growth, which was most evident in the length of the first leaf sheath and dry leaf weight. The observed decrease of the PSII parameters after the exposure to high doses of MeJA (500 µM or higher) was associated with the downregulation of HvPsbR gene encoding one of the extrinsic proteins of the Oxygen Evolving Complex. The reduced expression of HvPsbR might lead to the impairment of the OEC action, manifested by the occurrence of the K-band in an analysis of fluorescence kinetics after MeJA treatment as well as reduced photosynthesis efficiency. Furthermore, methyl jasmonate treatment caused a decrease in the nitrogen content in barley leaves, which was associated with an increased expression the four tonoplast aquaporin genes (HvTIP1;2, HvTIP2;2, HvTIP4;1 and HvTIP4;2) predicted to transport the nitrogen compounds from the vacuole to the cytosol. The upregulation of the nitrogen-transporting HvTIPs might suggest their involvement in the vacuolar unloading of ammonia and urea, which both could be remobilised when the nitrogen content in the leaves decreases. Our research provides tips on physiological role of the individual TIP subfamily members of aquaporins under methyl jasmonate action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses about tree effect on soil enzymes activity on birch, Betula pendula Roth and Pinus sylvestris L. stands.

The article presents a study report on how Oak tree plays the role as biomonitor. The leaves of two species of Oak tree such as Quercus robur and Quercus rubra are effective in monitoring air quality. The content of leaves is proved to be an indicator of pollution for the presence of heavy metal in environment.

Dominant species influence both species and functional composition of the vegetation as well as soil properties of the substrate. However, knowledge about the role played by dominant species in the process of shaping their habitat within post-industrial ecosystems is still limited. We aimed to assess the impact of four dominant species (Calamagrostis epigejos , Daucus carota , Poa compressa and Tussilago farfara) on soil abiotic and biotic properties, and to detect differences in species and functional composition of the vegetation types studied. We hypothesized that (1) dominant species of higher mean biomass cause lower aboveground biodiversity and (2) dominant species of higher mean biomass have a higher impact than the others on soil properties. We measured soil chemistry (TOC, N, P, K, Na, Mg content, EC, pH and enzyme activities) as well as biomass, species diversity and functional diversity of vegetation on 15 study plots (28.3 m2) for each species studied. The DCA analysis revealed a clear distinction between the patches dominated by studied species. Vegetation patches dominated by Calamagrostis epigejos were correlated with amount of biomass, canopy height CWM and specific leaf CWM. Patches dominated by Daucus carota were related to the light requirements (EIV-L), Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and K content. The vegetation patches dominated by Poa compressa were related to dehydrogenase activity, higher Mg content and species richness of the vegetation patches. The highest TOC content was recorded for T. farfara substrates, and the lowest for C. epigejos substrates. The content of potassium does not differ statistically significantly in the substrates from sites dominated by D. carota and P. compressa. The highest values of Mg content were recorded for D. carota and were statistically different from Poa compressa sites, while the higher phosphorus content (statistically significantly different) was recorded for patches dominated by T. farfara and P. compressa. Despite our assumptions, the species with the highest mean biomass (Calamagrostis epigejos) did not cause lower species or functional diversity. In contrast, Tussilago farfara has the highest impact on postindustrial site habitats on coal mine heaps, as extreme values of four soil substratum parameters were recorded on these plots. This species also decreased both species and functional diversity of vegetation. The knowledge about relationship existing between plants (aboveground vegetation) and soil organisms seems important in order to undertake suitable reclamation measures and to restore variety of functions as well as to create diverse vegetation based on native species. Unlabelled Image • Habitat shaping roles of dominant plant species on coal mine spoils was tested • Dominants with higher biomass do not always lower floristic and functional diversity • Dominants with higher biomass do not always seriously affect substrate properties • Effects of dominants on biological activity of spoil heap substrates were tested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a result of phylogenomic, phylogenetic, and morphological analyses of members of the genus Claroideoglomus , four potential new glomoid spore-producing species and Entrophospora infrequens , a new order, Entrophosporales, with one family, Entrophosporaceae (=Claroideoglomeraceae), was erected in the phylum Glomeromycota. The phylogenomic analyses recovered the Entrophosporales as sister to a clade formed by Diversisporales and Glomeraceae. The strongly conserved entrophosporoid morph of E. infrequens , provided with a newly designated epitype, was shown to represent a group of cryptic species with the potential to produce different glomoid morphs. Of the four potential new species, three enriched the Entrophosporales as new Entrophospora species, E. argentinensis, E. glacialis , and E. furrazolae , which originated from Argentina, Sweden, Oman, and Poland. The fourth fungus appeared to be a glomoid morph of the E. infrequens epitype. The physical association of the E. infrequens entrophosporoid and glomoid morphs was reported and illustrated here for the first time. The phylogenetic analyses, using nuc rDNA and rpb1 concatenated sequences, confirmed the previous conclusion that the genus Albahypha in the family Entrophosporaceae sensu Oehl et al. is an unsupported taxon. Finally, the descriptions of the Glomerales, Entrophosporaceae, and Entrophospora were emended and new nomenclatural combinations were introduced., Competing Interests: Authors FF and AV were employed by R&D Department, Symborg SL. Author LC was employed by Mycorrhizal Applications LLC at Bio-Research and Development Growth Park. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Błaszkowski, Sánchez-García, Niezgoda, Zubek, Fernández, Vila, Al-Yahya’ei, Symanczik, Milczarski, Malinowski, Cabello, Goto, Casieri, Malicka, Bierza and Magurno.)