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Microgreens are plants at the young phenological stage between sprouts and baby greens, with a growing period of around 6-16 days from germination to harvest. They are gaining increasing attention because of their short production cycle, dense growing conditions, and their beneficial attributes such as high nutrient density, secondary metabolite content, and gastronomic applications, all of which contribute to their categorization and use as ‘functional foods.’ However, the degree and impact of environmental parameterization on Microgreens production is not firmly established, with some crucial gaps such as light recipes being of critical importance. This is of contemporary importance given the current energy crisis; identifying pathways to reduce energy use and evaluate outcomes for production efforts can have beneficial impacts. With this in mind, the objective of this deliverable was to investigate experimentally the effects of nutrient solution fertilization, seeding density, and light spectrum combinations and intensities on fresh weight and dry weight accumulation in four Microgreen species and varieties: Sinapis alba (Mustard var. White Candy), Brassica oleracea var. sabellica L. (Kale var. Black Mandingo), Brassica oleracea (Radish var. Daikon Panzer), and Brassica oleracea convar. acephala var. gongylodes L. (Kohlrabi var. Red Cardinal). Our objective was to evaluate 10 different growth environments in highly controlled experiments conducted in a Climate Chamber in the University of Copenhagen’s Taastrup Campus, Taastrup, Denmark. The results of these experiments have shown that there are significant differences between light recipes for both FW and DW biomass accumulation. Furthermore, there were differences between seeding density, light type, and fertilization as well for FW and DW biomass accumulation. We have shown the degree of these differences for each of our four Brassicaceae Microgreen species. Overall, the best light recipe was the High Far-Red, which produced the best outcomes. This was a very strong relationship for FW, but for DW, there was more variety for light recipe influences. The effect of fertilization was also very clear, as it improved fresh biomass accumulation by around 1.5-2.0 times depending on the light recipe used. We have also presented results on the production of biomass per unit dollar input. We showed that the 24VHELEDs were much more economically productive than the highly expensive OSRAM research lights. Furthermore, their ease of use, waterproof qualities, low weight, and durability, led us to the conclusion that they are the better choice for growers in almost all cases; therefore, we recommend environmental recipes 9 and 10 for use by Microgreen growers. Furthermore, although there was a general improvement to FW biomass of about 1.13 times via using the more expensive OSRAM lights (recipes 1-8), they are around 50 times less productive per unit dollar input than the 24VHELEDs. In sum, therefore, we recommend growers use 24VHELEDs of a similar recipe to ours used here, which had a high green and red component; however, our research also demonstrated the efficacy of using light recipes with a high component of Far-Red light. Therefore, an ideal combination would be finding 24VHELEDs that also have Far-Red bands included in their light recipe, to approximate our HFR recipe, which had best overall productivity. Furthermore, photons with larger wavelengths have lower energy requirements per photon; therefore, using light recipes with higher amounts of Red or Far-Red light can lower energy costs of light recipes. Overall, we showed that Microgreens were sensitive to their environmental inputs, and we have contextualized the outputs for both overall production and for relative production metrics to offer valuable insight into Microgreen production options.

Microgreens are young plants between sprouts and baby greens with a growing period of about 7 to 16 days, depending on the variety. They are gaining increasing attention because of their short growing cycle and their beneficial attributes such as high nutritional content, valuable secondary metabolite production, and gastronomic applications. However, although growing microgreens is not a novel practice, best methods have not clearly been established. Therefore, this report, which is a deliverable within the GOhydro research project, has undertaken a literature review from 69 different studies in order to collect, harmonize, and synthesize information about existing production practices and current research trends. We have presented the results in three main sections: the first section is on substrate selection and fertilization regimes; the second section reviews the key production parameters (e.g EC, pH, temperature, relative humidity, photoperiod, daily light integral etc.) under which different studies were carried out; and the third section details light quantity and quality, which can influence productivity, nutrient density, colour, taste, and beneficial plant compounds. The results of our literature review, which contains data on 30 different varieties of microgreens, have shown that there is much variety-specific response variation to environmental parameters, fertilization, and different lighting conditions. One key result from our literature review is that an increase in cumulative light integral (DLI * growing period) corresponds to an increase in dry matter production up to 300 mol/m2 (R2=0.83), past which gains are minimal or even negative. Another key result is that there are important tradeoffs between secondary metabolite production and growth, which are inversely associated for fertilization, but are positively associated with light. Finally, although there is no single optimal light ratio, there are suggested light regimes that incorporate 5-15% blue light, 85-95% red light, with supplementary far red, UV, or even green/amber light, depending on the desired outputs and species responsivity. This report has synthesized and harmonized the data from all 69 papers, which have been collected and presented in two key tables (Table 8.1 and 8.2 in appendix) that includes information on the species and author, experimental methodology, and key results. This allows for anyone interested in microgreen production to have access to the historical and current practices derived from the published scientific literature.

Microgreens are plants at the young phenological stage between sprouts and baby greens, with a growing period of around 6-16 days from germination to harvest. They are gaining increasing attention because of their short production cycle and their beneficial attributes such as high nutrient density, secondary metabolite content, and gastronomic applications, all of which contribute to their categorization and use as ‘functional foods.’ Hence, the objective of this deliverable was to investigate experimentally the effects of nutrient solution fertilization, environmental parameterization, and light spectrum combinations and intensities on Biomass Yield and Secondary Metabolite Accumulation in five microgreen species and varieties: Ocimum basilicum (Basil var. Green Tesla), Sinapis alba (Mustard var. White Candy), Brassica oleracea var. sabellica L. (Kale var. Black Mandingo), Brassica oleracea (Radish var. Daikon Panzer), and Brassica oleracea convar. acephala var. gongylodes L. (Kohlrabi var. Red Cardinal). Our objective was to evaluate 12 different growth environments in controlled experiments conducted in a Climate Chamber in the University of Copenhagen’s Taastrup Campus, Taastrup, Denmark. These growth environments were designed to test microgreens production along a spectrum of environmental conditions, from low-input to high-input, which will inform our larger GOhydro goals and later work packages. With this in mind, we chose to vary Relative Humidity (40 or 70%), Nutrient Solution (Yes or No), Light Type (Expensive or Cheap), and Light Quality (Recipe for Biomass Yield Max or Secondary Metabolite Max). The results of these experiments will provide important criteria for selecting optimal growth environments for microgreens within the context of GOhydro’s project goals. Because of supply chain disruptions due to the Coronavirus, our original light and climate chamber supplier experienced critical chip shortages resulting in indefinite supply delays. We therefore had to change our procedure by finding a new supplier and acquiring both new lights and a grow system from separate companies. This has resulted in an unavoidable delay in beginning the experimental stage of this deliverable given the equipment’s unavailability. In Deliverable 1.2: Evaluation of optimized growth environments in controlled experiments, we have therefore presented the deliverable’s background, our objectives, methods, results template, and the results of our analyses that were conducted on the dataset that was generated from our literature review conducted in D1.1: Review on nutrient and production parameters and light requirements. This analysis was undertaken via multilinear regression models, which will be used for the final version of D1.2. Our initial analysis showed that more variation in FW, DW, Carotenoid, Phenols, and Anthocyanin outcomes was explained by the light spectrum combinations than light intensity; this informed our experimental parameters that are set for D1.2. Given that we have already undertaken a similar analysis that has refined our methodology, including having ready R-code for analysis, D1.2 only needs data from our experiments to be completed.

Deliverable 5.2 (D5.2) describes the plan of the GOHYDRO consortium to maximize the visibility and dissemination of the project’s results. The plan contains three key strategic directions (a) Raising public awareness and ensuring maximum visibility of the project key facts, outputs and findings amongst the public; (b) Supporting the transfer of project results and engagement from key stakeholders in academia and industry (c) Enhancing the commercial potential of the results and users’ reception. The latter direction will be more pertinent after the first year of the project after a considerable amount of results will have been generated, therefore a provision was made for D5.2 to have two versions; a first version delivered at M3 of the project identifying the dissemination and communication strategy to be followed and a second updated version at M12 after the generation of concrete results targeting in a more specific manner interested stakeholders in order to increase the commercial potential of the GOHYDRO outcomes. This first version of D5.2 describes in Chapter 1 the greater concept of the Dissemination and Communication Strategy that the consortium has opted to follow, in Chapter 2 the specific steps that have been taken so far and have mostly to do with the social media presence and general audience approach, and finally Chapter 3 summarizes the steps that will be taken during the remaining 9 months of Year 1 of the project.

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), including other species and cultivars, is an excellent source of nutritional compounds, the accumulation of which can be stimulated by exogenous factors (environmental and nutritional conditions). Although best practices are relatively established for mature basil plants, microgreens production requires further research to optimize quality and quantity. The study objectives are (i) to provide an overview of the many uses of basil, (ii) collate and present common hydroponic systems available in the market, (iii) review effects of key production environment parameters on basil yields in hydroponic systems, and (iv) summarize the effects of the growth environments on yield quantity and quality of basil microgreens. The paper analyzes in detail key production parameters of basil microgreens in hydroponic systems, such as temperature, humidity, pH, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrient solutions, and the influence of light (quantity, quality, and photoperiods). The collated literature review has shown that basil, grown hydroponically, can tolerate high variations of environmental parameters: pH 5.1–8.5, temperature 15–24 _C, relative humidity 60–70%, electrical conductivity up to 1.2 mS cm_1, depending on the developmental stage, dissolved oxygen at 4 mg L_1 (optimally 6.5 mg L_1), and light intensity between 200 and 400 _mol m_2 s_1. The study has synthesized an overview of different production parameters to provide guidance on the optimization of environmental conditions to ensure the quantity and quality production of basil microgreens. Improving the quality of basil microgreens can ideally spur continued gastronomic interest in microgreens in general, which will encourage more entrepreneurs to grow basil and other microgreens. Hence, the study findings are a great resource to learn about the effects of different environments on basil microgreen production. This information can inform research for successful production of different species and cultivars of basil microgreens, and establishing testing protocols to improve the quantity and quality of the harvest.

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), including other species and cultivars, is an excellent source of nutritional compounds, the accumulation of which can be stimulated by exogenous factors (environmental and nutritional conditions). Although best practices are relatively established for mature basil plants, microgreens production requires further research to optimize quality and quantity. The study objectives are (i) to provide an overview of the many uses of basil, (ii) collate and present common hydroponic systems available in the market, (iii) review effects of key production environment parameters on basil yields in hydroponic systems, and (iv) summarize the effects of the growth environments on yield quantity and quality of basil microgreens. The paper analyzes in detail key production parameters of basil microgreens in hydroponic systems, such as temperature, humidity, pH, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrient solutions, and the influence of light (quantity, quality, and photoperiods). The collated literature review has shown that basil, grown hydroponically, can tolerate high variations of environmental parameters: pH 5.1–8.5, temperature 15–24◦ C, relative humidity 60–70%, electrical conductivity up to 1.2 mS cm−1, depending on the developmental stage, dissolved oxygen at 4 mg L−1 (optimally 6.5 mg L−1 ), and light intensity between 200 and 400 µmol m−2 s−1 . The study has synthesized an overview of different production parameters to provide guidance on the optimization of environmental conditions to ensure the quantity and quality production of basil microgreens. Improving the quality of basil microgreens can ideally spur continued gastronomic interest in microgreens in general, which will encourage more entrepreneurs to grow basil and other microgreens. Hence, the study findings are a great resource to learn about the effects of different environments on basil microgreen production. This information can inform research for successful production of different species and cultivars of basil microgreens, and establishing testing protocols to improve the quantity and quality of the harvest.

To secure sustainable food production for meeting the growing global demand for food, it is imperative, while at the same time challenging, to make efficient use of natural resources with minimal impact on the environment. The study objective is to provide insights into the multiple benefits and trade-offs of different sustainable agricultural practices that are relevant across pedo-climatic zones in Europe and North Africa, including conservation agriculture, crop diversification, organic agriculture, and agroforestry. Widespread adoption of these practices in specific regions depends on the effectiveness with which their applications and attributes are communicated to farmers, and their suitability to local conditions and opportunities. Scale impacts of the practices range from field to catchment levels, but the best empirical evidence has been generated at field level in on-farm and experimental trials. The outcomes from the application of each of these practices depend on variables specific to each site, including pedo-climatic zone, geography, weather, ecology, culture, and traditions. Each practice has trade-offs and the same practice can have different effects when compared to conventional agriculture. To make site-specific recommendations, a careful assessment of overall benefits must be made. Adoption can be stimulated when farmers have the opportunity to experiment on their own land and discover the advantages and disadvantages of different practices.

Integration of food- and non-food production (IFNS) is not an easy task at the landscape scale. The questions arise, whether integrated systems systems, including agroforestry (AF) practices enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services relative to conventional agriculture and what is their general impact at the local scale in terms of climate change complexities. Here we explore the potential of different kind of AF systems (both modern type combining food and SRC wood production as well as traditional models producing bioenergy/bioproducts by smallholders in silvo-arable or silvo-pastoral systems) in delivering environmental benefits, focusing on preserving soil fertility and limiting soil degradation. One of the least visible degradation factors of soil cover is wind erosion. Wind erosion is a complex geomorphic process governed by a large number of variables. Field-scale models such as the Wind Erosion Prediction System employ numerous parameters to predict soil loss. A preliminary pan-European assessment of land susceptibility to wind erosion was created by the team at JRC in 2014 (Borelli et all, 2014). Agroforestry remains one of the most promising food production systems in terms of limiting wind erosion by lowering wind speed and increasing soil cover. In the studies, a network of representative integrated food and non-food systems (IFNS) were identified in different socio-economic and environmental settings in Northern, Eastern and Southern Europe across countries and bio-geographical zones. The network of six IFNS comprised both traditional and innovative systems in which trees, crops and livestock are integrated in different ways and at different spatial scales (table 1). Analyzing the wind erosion threat index in NUTS3 regions, it is apparent the wider adoption of given IFNS that proved themselves to be economically successful in particular NUTS3 regions would potentially limit wind erosion rates, especially for systems with arable component. The IFNS and their regions differ considerable in each of wind erosion threat index, British IFNS (1.616 Mg/ha/yr) and Danish IFNS (0.486 Mg/ha/yr) to a lesser extent being highly at risk of soil superficial erosion due to the location in highly wind conditions and soil susceptible to wind erosion. The potential of regional agroforestry practices (within each IFNS category and for each land use cover - EEA 2018) was estimated to mitigate considered risk for particular NUT in terms of financial investments needed to transform the land into agroforestry practice. The highest potential for limiting the area of strong wind erosion by an IFNS existing in a particular NUTS is observed in Romania, where 531km2 might be protected effectively with silvopastoral system, while applied in a longer term on non-pastoral land cover classes it could provide effective protection for another 1362 km2. The second largest influence can be achieved in the Polish NUTS regions, where 125 km2 may be taken into protection directly and another 1140 km2 may be transformed into agroforestry systems to lower the risk of soil erosion. Introduction of silvopastoral IFNS in Italy could save 114km2 of soil with 106km2 being under severe wind soil erosion threat. The highest risk is particularly observed on agricultural land in UK. Silvopastoral systems could be introduced there on pastures, saving potentially up to 414km2 of land.

Intercropping (IC) can reduce nitrogen fertilizer requirements, supress weeds, and improve crop yields and yield stability. Three field trials were conducted in Denmark in 2018 with intercropping a...

CONTEXT\ud Agroforestry is gaining interest in in Europe however the trade-offs associated with its uptake are still uncertain.\ud \ud OBJECTIVE\ud The objective of this study was to explore the sustainability trade-offs and synergies associated with a range of agroforestry systems in Europe and assess the underlying reasons for different performance regarding environmental, economic, social and governance domains.\ud \ud METHODS\ud Five case-studies of agroforestry from nothern, eastern and southern Europe were assessed using an established sustainability assessment tool, the Public Goods tool (PG tool). The case studies were selected to represent a range of innovative and traditional systems, encompassing arable and livestock, wood fuel and tree fruit crops.\ud \ud RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS\ud All five of the case studies were performing well across a diverse range of sustainability criteria, with average scores of three out of five or higher across the assessment categories. Social capital and animal health and welfare management scores were particularly high, due to high rates of on-farm employment of between 0.4 and 2.3 full-time labour units per hectare, and a high volume of local sales alongside effective health planning and husbandry through health planning and a lack of restrictions on natural behaviour. Land Equivalent Ratios were greater than 1 within each case and were particularly high for established silvopasture systems (over 1.5). Fossil fuel use was considerably lower than the industry average in most of the case studies (between 17 and 92% of the country-average per hectare for three of the cases). Economic performance was highly variable, with high labour costs contributing to negative margins.\ud \ud SIGNIFICANCE\ud The assessments show that agroforestry systems have considerable potential to contribute to multiple sustainability objectives, and that environmental and social sustainability objectives are particularly well addressed through increased efficiency of land-use, increased opportunities for on-farm employment and engagement with local communities. However considerable financial barriers still exist and may prevent its further uptake. Promoting the future uptake of agroforestry in Europe therefore requires the commitment of multiple actors in supply chains to plan policies, farm-practices and knowledge exchange that can support the delivery of sustainability benefits.

Cereal–legume intercropping increases the nitrogen (N) input from biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) and improves the exploitation of fertilizer and soil N, often leading to higher grain N content and higher productivity per unit land area compared to monocrops. Previous studies have found that these effects are more tangible under low soil and fertilizer N conditions compared to high N availability, and there is a need to assess the N uptake at critical crop development stages in order to time the N application for maximum uptake and use efficiency. The objective of this study was to assess the productivity of pea–barley intercropping compared to monocropping under 0 kg N ha−1 (0 N) and 100 kg N ha−1 (100 N). In 2017, a split plot experimental design was implemented with pea (Pisum sativum) sole crop (SC pea), barley (Hordeum vulgare) sole crop (SC barley), and pea–barley intercrop (IC total) as the main plots and 100 N applications in two 50 kg N ha−1 splits at 30 and 60 days after emergence as subplots within the main plots. The Land Equivalent Ratio (LER), based on grain dry matter (GDM) yields in the pea–barley intercrop (IC total), was higher (1.14 at 0 N and 1.10 at 100 N), indicating 10–14% greater radiation, nutrient, and water use efficiency compared to the sole crops and 4% greater resource use efficiency at 0 N compared to the 100 N; this illustrated greater total intercrop productivity compared to sole crops. The 100 N treatment decreased the SC pea and pea in intercrop (IC pea) GDM and grain dry matter N (GDMN) and increased the GDM and GDMN in SC barley and barley in the intercrop (IC barley). Intercropping increased the grain N content and therefore the protein content of the grains in 0 N and 100 N treatments. The highest fertilizer N yield, % nitrogen derived from fertilizer (%NDFF), and % nitrogen use efficiency (%NUE) were achieved in SC barley followed by IC total, indicating that intercropping improved the soil and fertilizer N use compared to SC pea. The IC pea increased the % nitrogen derived from atmosphere (%NDFA) from 67.9% in SC pea to 70.1% in IC pea. IC total increased the share of %NDFF, %NDFS, and %NDFA compared to the SC pea, which indicated a significant advantage of intercropping due to the complementarity of the component species under limited N supply in the field. Cereal–legume intercropping increases the nitrogen (N) input from biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) and improves the exploitation of fertilizer and soil N, often leading to higher grain N content and higher productivity per unit land area compared to monocrops. Previous studies have found that these effects are more tangible under low soil and fertilizer N conditions compared to high N availability, and there is a need to assess the N uptake at critical crop development stages in order to time the N application for maximum uptake and use efficiency. The objective of this study was to assess the productivity of pea–barley intercropping compared to monocropping under 0 kg N ha−1 (0 N) and 100 kg N ha−1 (100 N). In 2017, a split plot experimental design was implemented with pea (Pisum sativum) sole crop (SC pea), barley (Hordeum vulgare) sole crop (SC barley), and pea–barley intercrop (IC total) as the main plots and 100 N applications in two 50 kg N ha−1 splits at 30 and 60 days after emergence as subplots within the main plots. The Land Equivalent Ratio (LER), based on grain dry matter (GDM) yields in the pea–barley intercrop (IC total), was higher (1.14 at 0 N and 1.10 at 100 N), indicating 10–14% greater radiation, nutrient, and water use efficiency compared to the sole crops and 4% greater resource use efficiency at 0 N compared to the 100 N; this illustrated greater total intercrop productivity compared to sole crops. The 100 N treatment decreased the SC pea and pea in intercrop (IC pea) GDM and grain dry matter N (GDMN) and increased the GDM and GDMN in SC barley and barley in the intercrop (IC barley). Intercropping increased the grain N content and therefore the protein content of the grains in 0 N and 100 N treatments. The highest fertilizer N yield, % nitrogen derived from fertilizer (%NDFF), and % nitrogen use efficiency (%NUE) were achieved in SC barley followed by IC total, indicating that intercropping improved the soil and fertilizer N use compared to SC pea. The IC pea increased the % nitrogen derived from atmosphere (%NDFA) from 67.9% in SC pea to 70.1% in IC pea. IC total increased the share of %NDFF, %NDFS, and %NDFA compared to the SC pea, which indicated a significant advantage of intercropping due to the complementarity of the component species under limited N supply in the field.

Soil carbon management practices are those that add and maintain organic carbon in the\ud soil. These agricultural practices can potentially both contribute to climate change\ud mitigation and increase the soil's resilience to physical and biological stresses. The paper\ud draws on research findings from five regions across Europe to identify regionally-specific\ud barriers to and opportunities for the adoption of soil carbon management practices. Data\ud were derived from 50 interviews with policy-makers and advisers and 5 stakeholder\ud workshops in Denmark, Italy, Hungary, Poland and Spain. Several barriers to the uptake of\ud soil carbon management practices were common across all regions, however, regional\ud variations were also identified highlighting the importance of understanding the context\ud into which these practices are introduced. Key barriers related to existing biophysical\ud conditions, lack of financial support, farmer knowledge and experience, and the quality of\ud the advisory service. Opportunities included providing economic incentives, harmonising\ud regulation, supporting long term thinking and planning for resilience and providing good\ud quality advice. We conclude that in addition to persuasive mechanisms for encouraging the\ud adoption of these practices, what is required is a more process-oriented approach that\ud focuses on a series of experiential changes and fosters farmer learning through interactive\ud models of communicative intervention.

Agroforestry systems have multifunctional roles in enhancing agronomic productivity, co-production of diversity of food and non-food products and provision of ecosystem services. The knowledge of the performance of agroforestry systems compared with monoculture is scarce and scattered. Hence, the objective of the study was to analyze the agronomic productivity and economic viability of diverse agroforestry systems in Europe. A network of five agroforestry systems integrating arable crops, livestock and biomass trees was investigated to assess the range of agricultural products in each agroforestry system. Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) was used to measure the agronomic productivity, whereas gross margin was used as an indicator for economic viability assessment. LER values ranged from 1.36–2.00, indicating that agroforestry systems were more productive by 36–100% compared to monocultures. Agroforestry gross margin was lower in Denmark (€112 ha−1 year−1) compared to United Kingdom (€5083 ha−1 year−1) and the crop component yielded higher returns compared to negative returns from the tree component in agroforestry. Hence, the study provided robust field-based evidence on agronomic productivity and economic viability assessment of agroforestry systems in diverse contexts for informed decision making by land managers, advisory services, farmers and policymakers.

Sustainability assessment is a complex field and its uptake amongst agricultural producers limited. Furthermore, the scope of current sustainability assessment tools does not extend to systems in which food production is integrated with production of non-food biomass (e.g. agroforestry). Participatory approaches to tool development offer a means to overcome the subjectivity of researcher-led tool design and thus the potential to increase relevance and engagement. In this work we develop a Delphi-style methodology as a means to produce a sustainability assessment tool suitable to assess and feedback on an integrated food/non-food system. Using a widely accepted agricultural sustainability framework and an existing farm sustainability assessment tool as a base, stakeholders were engaged with across six countries and multiple stakeholder groups to identify key indicators to be added to the tool. The methodology developed is described in detail, framed in the setting of this tool development process but providing a novel framework applicable to any situation where indicators must be developed for a complex issue of interest across multiple perspectives and stakeholder groups. Feedback and learning from the experience is provided. It was found that, contrary to some opinion, the inclusion of a face-to-face discussion round as part of the Delphi procedure provides a valuable means for information exchange and a move towards consensus amongst stakeholders. By using a ‘snowball’ approach to the in person discussions, it appears too that the loss of the voices of more socially retiring individuals can be avoided. Final levels of agreement vary substantially across the different areas of sustainability, with indicators in some areas (e.g. environmental integrity) proving much less controversial than others (e.g. social wellbeing). Despite this, the methodology effectively reaches a level of consensus amongst diverse stakeholders sufficient to guide the selection of sustainability indicators with a good level of confidence.

Soil and its ecosystem functions play a societal role in securing sustainable food production while safeguarding natural resources. A functional land management framework has been proposed to optimize the agro‐environmental outputs from the land and specifically the supply and demand of soil functions such as (a) primary productivity, (b) carbon sequestration, (c) water purification and regulation, (d) biodiversity and (e) nutrient cycling, for which soil knowledge is essential. From the outset, the LANDMARK multi‐actor research project integrates harvested knowledge from local, national and European stakeholders to develop such guidelines, creating a sense of ownership, trust and reciprocity of the outcomes. About 470 stakeholders from five European countries participated in 32 structured workshops covering multiple land uses in six climatic zones. The harmonized results include stakeholders’ priorities and concerns, perceptions on soil quality and functions, implementation of tools, management techniques, indicators and monitoring, activities and policies, knowledge gaps and ideas. Multi‐criteria decision analysis was used for data analysis. Two qualitative models were developed using Decision EXpert methodology to evaluate “knowledge” and “needs”. Soil quality perceptions differed across workshops, depending on the stakeholder level and regionally established terminologies. Stakeholders had good inherent knowledge about soil functioning, but several gaps were identified. In terms of critical requirements, stakeholders defined high technical, activity and policy needs in (a) financial incentives, (b) credible information on improving more sustainable management practices, (c) locally relevant advice, (d) farmers’ discussion groups, (e) training programmes, (f) funding for applied research and monitoring, and (g) strengthening soil science in education.

Soil degradation is a global concern, decreasing the soil’s ability to perform a multitude of functions. In Europe, one of the leading causes of soil degradation is unsustainable agricultural practices. Hence, there is a need to explore alternative production systems for enhanced agronomic productivity and environmental performance, such as agroforestry systems (AFS). Given this, the objective of the study is to enumerate the major benefits and challenges in the adoption of AFS. AFS can improve agronomic productivity, carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, soil biodiversity, water retention, and pollination. Furthermore, they can reduce soil erosion and incidence of fire and provide recreational and cultural benefits. There are several challenges to the adoption and uptake of AFS in Europe, including high costs for implementation, lack of financial incentives, limited AFS product marketing, lack of education, awareness, and field demonstrations. Policies for financial incentives such as subsidies and payments for ecosystem services provided by AFS must be introduced or amended. Awareness of AFS products must be increased for consumers through appropriate marketing strategies, and landowners need more opportunities for education on how to successfully manage diverse, economically viable AFS. Finally, field-based evidence is required for informed decision-making by farmers, advisory services, and policy-making bodies.

Given the environmental footprints of the conventional agriculture, it is imperative to test and validate alternative production systems, with lower environmental impacts to mitigate and adapt our production systems. In this study, we identified six production systems, four in Italy and two in Denmark, to assess the environmental footprint for comparison among the production systems and additionally with conventional production systems. SimaPro 8.4 software was used to carry out the life cycle impact assessment. Among other indicators, three significantly important indicators, namely global warming potential, acidification, and eutrophication, were used as the proxy for life cycle impact assessment. In Italy, the production systems compared were silvopastoral, organic, traditional, and conventional olive production systems, whereas in Denmark, combined food and energy production system was compared with the conventional wheat production system. Among the six production systems, conventional wheat production system in Denmark accounted for highest global warming potential, acidification, and eutrophication. In Italy, global warming potential was highest in traditional agroforestry and lowest in the silvopastoral system whereas acidification and eutrophication were lowest in the traditional production system with high acidification effects from the silvopastoral system. In Italy, machinery use contributed the highest greenhouse gas emissions in silvopastoral and organic production systems, while the large contribution to greenhouse gas emissions from fertilizer was recorded in the traditional and conventional production systems. In Denmark, the combined food and energy system had lower environmental impacts compared to the conventional wheat production system according to the three indicators. For both systems in Denmark, the main contribution to greenhouse gas emission was due to fertilizer and manure application. The study showed that integrated food and non-food systems are more environmentally friendly and less polluting compared to the conventional wheat production system in Denmark with use of chemical fertilizers and irrigation. The study can contribute to informed decision making by the land managers and policy makers for promotion of environmentally friendly food and non-food production practices, to meet the European Union targets of providing biomass-based materials and energy to contribute to the bio-based economy in Europe and beyond.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) has a vital role to enhance agricultural productivity and for mitigation of climate change. To quantify SOC effects on productivity, process models serve as a robust tool to keep track of multiple plant and soil factors and their interactions affecting SOC dynamics. We used soil-plant-atmospheric model viz. DAISY, to assess effects of SOC on nitrogen (N) supply and plant available water (PAW) under varying N fertilizer rates in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) in Denmark. The study objective was assessment of SOC effects on winter wheat grain and aboveground biomass accumulation at three SOC levels (low: 0.7% SOC; reference: 1.3% SOC; and high: 2% SOC) with five nitrogen rates (0–200 kg N ha-1) and PAW at low, reference, and high SOC levels. The three SOC levels had significant effects on grain yields and aboveground biomass accumulation at only 0–100 kg N ha-1 and the SOC effects decreased with increasing N rates until no effects at 150–200 kg N ha-1. PAW had significant positive correlation with SOC content, with high SOC retaining higher PAW compared to low and reference SOC. The mean PAW and SOC correlation was given by PAW% = 1.0073 × SOC% + 15.641. For the 0.7–2% SOC range, the PAW increase was small with no significant effects on grain yields and aboveground biomass accumulation. The higher winter wheat grain and aboveground biomass was attributed to higher N supply in N deficient wheat production system. Our study suggested that building SOC enhances agronomic productivity at only 0–100 kg N ha-1. Maintenance of SOC stock will require regular replenishment of SOC, to compensate for the mineralization process degrading SOC over time. Hence, management can maximize realization of SOC benefits by building up SOC and maintaining N rates in the range 0–100 kg N ha-1, to reduce the off-farm N losses depending on the environmental zones, land use and the production system.

Conventional farming (CONV) is the norm in European farming, causing adverse effects on some of the five major soil functions, viz. primary productivity, carbon sequestration and regulation, nutrient cycling and provision, water regulation and purification, and habitat for functional and intrinsic biodiversity. Conservation agriculture (CA) is an alternative to enhance soil functions. However, there is no analysis of CA benefits on the five soil functions as most studies addressed individual soil functions. The objective was to compare effects of CA and CONV practices on the five soil functions in four major environmental zones (Atlantic North, Pannonian, Continental and Mediterranean North) in Europe by applying expert scoring based on synthesis of existing literature. In each environmental zone, a team of experts scored the five soil functions due to CA and CONV treatments and median scores indicated the overall effects on five soil functions. Across the environmental zones, CONV had overall negative effects on soil functions with a median score of 0.50 whereas CA had overall positive effects with median score ranging from 0.80 to 0.83. The study proposes the need for field-based investigations, policies and subsidy support to benefit from CA adoption to enhance the five soil functions. Unión Europea 635201 Unión Europea 652615 Unión Europea 689271

Soils are vital for supporting food security and other ecosystem services. Climate change can affect soil functions both directly and indirectly. Direct effects include temperature, precipitation, and moisture regime changes. Indirect effects include those that are induced by adaptations such as irrigation, crop rotation changes, and tillage practices. Although extensive knowledge is available on the direct effects, an understanding of the indirect effects of agricultural adaptation options is less complete. A review of 20 agricultural adaptation case‐studies across Europe was conducted to assess implications to soil threats and soil functions and the link to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The major findings are as follows: (a) adaptation options reflect local conditions; (b) reduced soil erosion threats and increased soil organic carbon are expected, although compaction may increase in some areas; (c) most adaptation options are anticipated to improve the soil functions of food and biomass production, soil organic carbon storage, and storing, filtering, transforming, and recycling capacities, whereas possible implications for soil biodiversity are largely unknown; and (d) the linkage between soil functions and the SDGs implies improvements to SDG 2 (achieving food security and promoting sustainable agriculture) and SDG 13 (taking action on climate change), whereas the relationship to SDG 15 (using terrestrial ecosystems sustainably) is largely unknown. The conclusion is drawn that agricultural adaptation options, even when focused on increasing yields, have the potential to outweigh the negative direct effects of climate change on soil degradation in many European regions.

The report provides an overview of the agroforestry systems and descriptions of the production systems in five different partner countries in SustainFARM project. Each agroforestry system descriptions provides information on the crop and tree component species, inputs and the outputs of the production system. The data was collected from the partners in a common standard template in order to harmonise the same data collection across the production system.

With inevitable link between ecosystem function (EF), ecosystem services (ES) and agricultural productivity, there is a need for quantification and valuation of EF and ES in agro-ecosystems. Management practices have significant effects on soil organic matter (SOM), affecting productivity, EF and ES provision. The objective was to quantify two EF: soil water storage and nitrogen mineralization and three ES: food and fodder production and carbon sequestration, in a conventional winter wheat production system at 2.6% SOM compared to 50% lower (1.3%) and 50% higher (3.9%) SOM in Denmark by DAISY model. At 2.6% SOM, the food and fodder production was 6.49 and 6.86 t ha−1 year−1 respectively whereas carbon sequestration and soil water storage was 9.73 t ha−1 year−1 and 684 mm ha−1 year−1 respectively and nitrogen mineralisation was 83.58 kg ha−1 year−1. At 2.6% SOM, the two EF and three ES values were US$ 177 and US$ 2542 ha−1 year−1 respectively equivalent to US$ 96 and US$1370 million year−1 respectively in Denmark. The EF and ES quantities and values were positively correlated with SOM content. Hence, the quantification and valuation of EF and ES provides an empirical tool for optimising the EF and ES provision for agricultural productivity.

Farming practices that lead to declining returns and inputs of carbon to soils pose a threat to key soil functions. The EU FP 7 interdisciplinary project Smart SOIL is using scientific testing and modeling to identify management practices that can optimize soil carbon storage and crop productivity. A consultation with advisors and policymakers in six European case study regions seeks to identify barriers to, and incentives for, uptake of such practices. Results from preliminary interviews are reported. Overall advisor and farmer awareness of management practices specifically directed towards soil carbon. is low. Most production- related decisions are taken in the short term, but managing soil carbon needs a long- term approach. Key barriers to uptake of practices include: perceived scientifi c uncertainty about the effi cacy of practices; lack of real life ?best practice? examples to show farmers; diffi culty in demonstrating the positive effects of soil carbon management practices and economic benefi ts over a long time scale; and advisors being unable to provide suitable advice due to inadequate information or training. Most farmers are unconvinced of the economic benefi ts of practices for managing soil carbon. Incentives are therefore needed, either as subsidies or as evidence of the cost effectiveness of practices. All new measures and advice should be integrated into existing programmes to avoid a fragmented policy approach.

The empirical evidence of decline in ecosystem services (ES) over the last century has reinforced the call for ES quantification, monitoring and valuation. Usually, only provisioning ES are marketable and accounted for, whereas regulating, supporting and cultural ES are typically non-marketable and overlooked in connection with land-use or management decisions. The objective of this study was to quantify and value total ES (marketable and non-marketable) of diverse production systems and management intensities in Denmark to provide a basis for decisions based on economic values. The production systems were conventional wheat (Cwheat), a combined food and energy (CFE) production system and beech forest. Marketable (provisioning ES) and non-marketable ES (supporting, regulating and cultural) ES were quantified by dedicated on-site field measurements supplemented by literature data. The value of total ES was highest in CFE (US$ 3142 ha −1 yr −1 ) followed by Cwheat (US$ 2767 ha −1 yr −1 ) and beech forest (US$ 2328 ha −1 yr −1 ). As the production system shifted from Cwheat - CFE–beech, the marketable ES share decreased from 88% to 75% in CFE and 55% in beech whereas the non-marketable ES share increased to 12%, 25% and 45% of total ES in Cwheat, CFE and beech respectively, demonstrating production system and management effects on ES values. Total ES valuation, disintegrated into marketable and non-marketable share is a potential way forward to value ES and ‘tune’ our production systems for enhanced ES provision. Such monetary valuation can be used by policy makers and land managers as a tool to assess ES value and monitor the sustained flow of ES. The application of ES-based valuation for land management can enhance ES provision for maintaining the productive capacity of the land without depending on the external fossil-based fertilizer and chemical input.

Given the energetic, demographic and the climatic challenges faced today, we designed a combined food and energy (CFE) production system integrating food, fodder and mixed belts of Salix, Alnus and Corylus sp. as bioenergy belts. The objective was to assess the shoot dry weight-stem diameter allometric relationship based on stem diameter at 10 (SD10) and 55 cm (SD55) from the shoot base in the mixed bioenergy belts. Allometric relations based on SD10 and SD55 explained 90–96% and 90–98% of the variation in shoot dry weights respectively with no differences between the destructive and the non-destructive methods. The individual stool yields varied widely among the species and within willow species with biomass yield range of 37.60–92.00 oven dry tons (ODT) ha−1 in 4-year growth cycle. The biomass yield of the bioenergy belt, predicted by allometric relations was 48.84 ODT ha−1 in 4-year growth cycle corresponding to 12.21 ODT ha−1 year−1. The relatively high biomass yield is attributed to the border effects and the ‘fertilizing effect’ of alder due to nitrogen fixation, benefitting other SWRC components. On termination of 4-year growth cycle, the bioenergy belts were harvested and the biomass yield recorded was 12.54 ODT ha−1 year−1, in close proximity to the biomass yield predicted by the allometric equations, lending confidence and robustness of the model for biomass yield determination in such integrated agro-ecosystem.

A key narrative within climate change science is that conserving and improving soil carbon through agricultural practices can contribute to agricultural productivity and is a promising option for mitigating carbon loss through sequestration. This paper examines the potential disconnect between science and practice in the context of communicating information about soil carbon management. It focuses on the information producing process and on stakeholder (adviser, farmer representative, policy maker etc) assessment of the attributes credibility, salience and legitimacy. In doing this it draws on results from consultations with stakeholders in the SmartSOIL project which aimed to provide decision support guidelines about practices that optimise carbon mitigation and crop productivity. An iterative methodology, used to engage stakeholders in developing, testing and validating a range of decision support guidelines in six case study regions across Europe, is described. This process enhanced legitimacy and revealed the importance, and the different dimensions, of stakeholder views on credibility and salience. The results also highlight the complexities and contested nature of managing soil carbon. Some insights are gained into how to achieve more effective communication about soil carbon management, including the need to provide opportunities in projects and research programmes for dialogue to engender better understanding between science and practice.

It is a major challenge to produce food and energy sustainably for the ever increasing world population as today's conventional food production and energy needs are met by the fossil based resources, causing enormous environmental load. A novel, combined food and energy (CFE) agro-ecosystem, was designed for sustainable production of food, fodder and energy without chemical inputs (fertiliser, herbicide and fungicide). The objective was an emergy synthesis of the CFE system compared to a conventional wheat (Triticum aestivum) production system to assess resource use efficiency. The emergy indices, used to assess the environmental performance and sustainability, exhibited contrasting differences between the two production systems in terms of outputs (Y), total emergy use, solar transformity, relative use of local renewable resources, environmental loading ratio (ELR), emergy yield ratio (EYR) and emergy sustainability index (ESI). The Y in the CFE consisted of grain, straw, fodder and woodchip production of 4020, 3580, 6100 and 10,000 kg/ha/yr respectively whereas Y in the conventional wheat consisted of 7250 and 3770 kg grain and straw/ha/yr respectively. The Y in the CFE was 81% (2.80E+11 J/ha/yr) higher with 13.5 times (6.40E+03 seJ/J) lower solar transformity compared to the Y (1.54E+11 J/ha/yr) and solar transformity (8.63E+04 seJ/J) in the conventional wheat, exhibiting highly resource intensive production in conventional wheat. The local renewables constituted 19.2% and 2.6% of the total emergy input in the CFE and the conventional wheat respectively with a corresponding lower ELR (4.21) and 22.5% higher EYR (1.26) in CFE compared to conventional wheat. CFE was more reliant on local renewable emergy flows and compatible with the local environment with higher ESI (0.30) compared to conventional wheat (0.03), where 64.5% of the total emergy input constituted chemical inputs. The study demonstrated that the innovative agro-ecosystem, exemplified by CFE, is considerably less resource demanding and more amenable to sustainable production, whether defined in terms of outputs, solar transformity, relative use of local renewable resources, EYR, ELR or ESI.

SUMMARYThe uptake of urea fertilizer (NDFF), applied with 150 kg nitrogen (N) ha−1, topdressed in five splits of 30 kg N ha−1 (30 N) each at 7, 26, 45, 70 and 83 days after transplanting (DAT) of rice (Oryza sativa L.), was investigated in an improved (Khangma Maap, KM) and a traditional (Janam, JN) cultivar in Bhutan highlands, using enriched 15N stable isotope. The treatments were arranged in a split–split plot design, with N fertilizer levels as main plots, cultivars as subplots and topdressing treatments as sub-subplots, with all the sub-subplots receiving the same dose except different timing of one split of enriched 15N to determine partial N fertilize use efficiency at each split dose. Although cultivar differences were not recorded in soil N accumulation and in total dry matter N, KM produced 21% higher grain yields compared to JN due to higher grain harvest index and partial factor productivity of N. Irrespective of the cultivars, topdressing timing had significant effects on NDFF, with highest mean N recovery (REN) of 29% of applied 30 N at 45 DAT during active tillering stage, resulting in mean NDFF total (grain + straw) uptake of 8.71 kg N ha−1 compared to least effective topdressing timing at 7 DAT with mean REN of 12% and NDFF total of 3.51 kg N ha−1. In similarity to topdressing at 45 DAT, topdressing at 70 DAT (panicle initiation stage) was equally effective with mean REN of 27% across the cultivars. Hence, fertilizer N topdressing recommendations that combine use of improved cultivars with N applications timed to coincide with maximum crop demand at 45 and 70 DAT, could enhance N fertilizer use efficiency for increased rice yields as well as reduce N losses downstream, which can cause adverse off-site environmental effects.

With an objective to evaluate the Bhutan rice (Oryza sativa L.) landraces for genetic diversity in blast resistance, 402 accessions viz. 352 landraces, a differential set of 32 R gene lines and 18 modern cultivars were field-evaluated in three blast ‘hotspot’ sites followed by genetic analysis of the 352 landraces with 27 microsatellite markers. Across the sites, 19 landraces (5.4%) exhibited complete resistance with zero disease score and 203 (58%) and 163 (46%) landraces showed high partial resistance for early leaf and panicle blast, respectively, with disease score of four to six. Field evaluation for leaf and panicle blast at three experimental sites in Bhutan showed best cultivar discrimination in early leaf blast at the tillering stage (heritability, h2 = 0.32) and in the panicle blast at maturity (h2 = 0.44). Subdivision of the genetic variation into cultivar groups revealed the most variation for blast severity within the 352 landraces with h2 of 0.31 and 0.46 for early leaf and panicle blast, respectively. Cluster analysis of the landraces revealed two distinct rice cultivar groups, which separated at dissimilarity of 0.84 according to origin of the cultivars from low, mid and high altitude zones in Bhutan. All microsatellites were polymorphic with two to 21 different alleles per marker and a high polymorphic information content value of 0.61. The identified blast resistant landraces were genetically diverse originating from different rice cultivation zones. Further investigation of the resistant and partial resistant material may reveal specific blast resistance genes, which could be useful to mitigate blast incidence in rice-producing countries.

In Western Bhutan, a traditional mixed farming system is practised with integration of both livestock and crops. Irrigated highland rice (Oryza sativa L.) is grown in terraced bunds by smallholder farmers for household consumption, with farmyard manure as the main source of nutrient input. The study objectives were to evaluate the rice productivity of the existing farming system, assess the potential of improved cultivars and nitrogen input, and their economic analyses. On-farm trials were carried out in 17 farmers' fields with one traditional and two improved cultivars of rice at 0 and 60 kg nitrogen ha−1 in two highland rice-growing districts. Across locations, environmental index varied from 2.9–6.3 Mg ha−1, exhibiting significantly wide differences in grain yield within and across village clusters. Soil properties were highly variable and soil organic matter was relatively high among the locations. Timely transplanting and small farm size had positive effects on grain yield. Significant effec...

The effect of sole and intercropping of field pea (Pisum sativum L.) and spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) on crop yield, fertilizer and soil nitrogen (N) use was tested on a sandy loam soil at three levels of urea fertilizer N (0, 4 and 8 g N m−2) applied at sowing. The 15 N enrichment and natural abundance techniques were used to determine N accumulation in the crops from the soil, fertilizer and symbiotic N2 fixation. Intercrops of pea and wheat showed maximum productivity without the supply of N fertilizer. Intercropping increased total dry matter (DM) and N yield, grain DM and N yield, grain N concentration, the proportion of N derived from symbiotic N2 fixation, and soil N accumulation. With increasing fertilizer N supply, intercropped and sole cropped wheat responded with increased yield, grain N yield and soil N accumulation, whereas the opposite was the case for pea. Fertilizer N enhanced the competitive ability of intercropped wheat recovering up to 90% of the total intercrop fertilizer N acquisition and decreased the proportion of pea in the intercrop, but without influencing the total intercrop grain yield. As a consequence, Land Equivalent Ratios calculated on basis of total DM production decreased from a maximum of 1.34 to as low as 0.85 with increased fertilizer N supply. The study suggests that pea–wheat intercropping is a cropping strategy that use N sources efficiently due to its spatial self-regulating dynamics where pea improve its interspecific competitive ability in areas with lower soil N levels, and vice versa for wheat, paving way for future option to reduce N inputs and negative environmental impacts of agricultural crop production.

Land use and management intensity can influence provision of ecosystem services (ES). We argue that forest/agroforestry production systems are characterized by relatively higher C:O/C:N and ES value compared to arable production systems. Field investigations on C:N/C:O and 15 ES were determined in three diverse production systems: wheat monoculture (C-wheat), a combined food and energy system (CFE) and a beech forest in Denmark. The C:N/C:O ratios were 194.1/1.68, 94.1/1.57 and 59.5/1.45 for beech forest, CFE and Cwheat, respectively. The economic value of the non-marketed ES was also highest in beech forest (US$ 1089 ha(-1) yr(-1)) followed by CFE (US$ 800 ha(-1) yr(-1)) and Cwheat (US$ 339 ha(-1) yr(-1)). The combined economic value was highest in the CFE (US$ 3143 ha(-1) yr(-1)) as compared to the Cwheat (US$ 2767 ha(-1) yr(-1)) and beech forest (US$ 2365 ha(-1) yr(-1)). We argue that C:N/C:O can be used as a proxy of ES, particularly for the non-marketed ES, such as regulating, supporting and cultural services. These ES play a vital role in the sustainable production of food and energy. Therefore, they should be considered in decision making and developing appropriate policy responses for land use management. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Among the soil-based ecosystem services (ES), nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration have direct influence on the biogeochemical cycles and greenhouse gas emissions affecting provision of other ES that support human existence. We reviewed methods to assess the two key ES by identifying their strengths and weaknesses and have made suggestions for using appropriate methods for better understanding of the ecosystem functions for the provision of ES. Relevant papers for the review were chosen on the basis of (i) diversity of studies on the two key ES in different ecosystems, (ii) methodologies applied and (iii) detailed descriptions of the trial locations in terms of vegetation, soil type, location and climatic information. We concluded that (i) elemental stoichiometrical ratios could be a potential approach to assess the health of ecosystems in terms of provision of the two ES discussed, (ii) stoichiometric imbalances need to be avoided between the supply and the demand of the nutrients to maintain the ES provision in terrestrial ecosystems and (iii) stoichiometric ratios can act as a management tool at a field, farm and at landscape level, to complement other compositional biodiversity and functional diversity approaches to ensure sustainable provision of ES. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

The recovery of soil derived nitrogen (NDFS) and fertilizer N (NDFF) was investigated in highland rice (Oryza sativa L.) fields in Bhutan, characterized by high inputs of farmyard manure (FYM). The effect of 60 kg N ha−1 (60 N) applied in two splits to a traditional and an improved cultivar, popular among the farmers, was investigated using the 15N isotope dilution technique. No differences were found between cultivars with respect to the uptake of NDFS and NDFF, but the improved cultivar yielded 27% more (P ≤ 0.05) grain compared with the traditional cultivar. This was largely due to its greater harvest index (HI). The mean percentage recovery of fertilizer N (REN) applied at 45 days after transplanting (DAT) was 34% compared to 22% at 7 DAT, resulting in 56% greater uptake of NDFF at 45 DAT. The overall REN for both the improved and the traditional cultivars were 25.7% and 30% respectively, with no difference between cultivars, but REN decreased with increasing FYM inputs. Fertilizer N recommendations that allow for previous FYM inputs combined with applications timed to coincide with maximum crop demand (45 DAT), and the use of improved cultivars, could enhance N fertilizer recoveries (REN) and increase rice yields in the Bhutan Highlands.

Soil carbon management practices are those that add and maintain organic carbon in the soil. These agricultural practices can potentially both contribute to climate change mitigation and increase the soil’s resilience to physical and biological stresses. The paper draws on research findings from five regions across Europe to identify regionally-specific barriers to and opportunities for the adoption of soil carbon management practices. Data were derived from 50 interviews with policy-makers and advisers and 5 stakeholder workshops in Denmark, Italy, Hungary, Poland and Spain. Several barriers to the uptake of soil carbon management practices were common across all regions, however, regional variations were also identified highlighting the importance of understanding the context into which these practices are introduced. Key barriers related to existing biophysical conditions, lack of financial support, farmer knowledge and experience, and the quality of the advisory service. Opportunities included providing economic incentives, harmonizing regulation, supporting long term thinking and planning for resilience and providing good quality advice. We conclude that in addition to persuasive mechanisms for encouraging the adoption of these practices, what is required is a more process-oriented approach that focuses on a series of experiential changes and fosters farmer learning through interactive models of communicative intervention.

Soil carbon management practices are those that add and maintain organic carbon in the soil. These agricultural practices can potentially both contribute to climate change mitigation and increase the soil’s resilience to physical and biological stresses. The paper draws on research findings from five regions across Europe to identify regionally-specific barriers to and opportunities for the adoption of soil carbon management practices. Data were derived from 50 interviews with policy-makers and advisers and 5 stakeholder workshops in Denmark, Italy, Hungary, Poland and Spain. Several barriers to the uptake of soil carbon management practices were common across all regions, however, regional variations were also identified highlighting the importance of understanding the context into which these practices are introduced. Key barriers related to existing biophysical conditions, lack of financial support, farmer knowledge and experience, and the quality of the advisory service. Opportunities included providing economic incentives, harmonizing regulation, supporting long term thinking and planning for resilience and providing good quality advice. We conclude that in addition to persuasive mechanisms for encouraging the adoption of these practices, what is required is a more process-oriented approach that focuses on a series of experiential changes and fosters farmer learning through interactive models of communicative intervention.