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Social carnivores frequently live in fission–fusion societies, where individuals that share a common territory or home range may be found alone, in subgroups, or altogether. Absolute group size and subgroup size is expected to vary according to resource distribution, but for species that are susceptible to anthropogenic pressures, other factors may be important drivers. African lions (Panthera leo) are the only truly social felid and lion prides are characterized by fission–fusion dynamics with social groups frequently splitting and reforming, and subgroup membership can change continuously and frequently. The number of individuals in a group can be reflective of social, ecological, and anthropogenic conditions. This dynamic behavior makes understanding lion grouping patterns crucial for tailoring conservation measures. The evolution of group living in lions has been the topic of numerous studies, and we drew on these to formulate hypotheses relating to group size and subgroup size variation. Based on data collected from 199 lion groups across eight sites in Kenya, we found that group sizes were smaller when lions were closer to human settlements, suggesting that edge effects are impacting lions at a national scale. Smaller groups were also more likely when they were far from water, and were associated with very low and very high levels of non-tree vegetation. We found significant differences between the study sites, with the Maasai Mara having the largest groups (mean ± SD = 7.7 ± 4.7, range = 1–19), and Amboseli conservation area the smallest (4.3 ± 3.5, range = 1–14). While long-term studies within a single site are well suited to thoroughly differentiate between absolute group size and subgroup size, our study provides unique insight into the correlates of grouping patterns in a vulnerable species at a national scale.

The decline of lions (Panthera leo) in Kenya has raised conservation concerns about their overall population health and long-term survival. This study aimed to assess the genetic structure, differentiation and diversity of lion populations in the country, while considering the influence of past management practices. Using a lion-specific Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) panel, we genotyped 171 individuals from 12 populations representative of areas with permanent lion presence. Our results revealed a distinct genetic pattern with pronounced population structure, confirmed a north-south split and found no indication of inbreeding in any of the tested populations. Differentiation seems to be primarily driven by geographical barriers, human presence and climatic factors, but management practices may have also affected the observed patterns. Notably, the Tsavo population displayed evidence of admixture, perhaps attributable to its geographic location as a suture zone, vast size or past translocations, while the fenced populations of Lake Nakuru National Park and Solio Ranch exhibited reduced genetic diversity due to restricted natural dispersal. The Amboseli population had a high number of monomorphic loci likely reflecting a historical population decline. This illustrates that patterns of genetic diversity should be seen in the context of population histories and that future management decisions should take these insights into account. To address the conservation implications of our findings, we recommend prioritizing the maintenance of suitable habitats to facilitate population connectivity. Initiation of genetic restoration efforts and separately managing populations with unique evolutionary histories is crucial for preserving genetic diversity and promoting long-term population viability.

Predicting the effects of global environmental changes on species distribution is a top conservation priority, particularly for large carnivores, that contribute to regulating and maintaining ecosystems. As the most widespread and adaptable large felid, ranging across Africa and Asia, leopards are crucial to many ecosystems as both keystone and umbrella species, yet they are threatened across their ranges. We used intraspecific species distribution models (SDMs) to predict changes in range suitability for leopards under future climate and land-use change and identify conservation gaps and opportunities. We generated intraspecific SDMs for the three western leopard subspecies, the African, Panthera pardus pardus; Arabian, Panthera pardus nimr; and Persian, Panthera pardus tulliana, leopards, and overlapped predictions with protected areas (PAs) coverage. We show that leopard subspecies differ in their environmental associations and vulnerability to future changes. The African and Arabian leopards are predicted to lose ~25% and ~14% of their currently suitable range, respectively, while the Persian leopard is predicted to experience ~12% range gains. We found that most areas predicted to be suitable were not protected, with only 4%–16% of the subspecies' ranges falling inside PAs, and that these proportions will decrease in the future. The highly variable responses we found between leopard subspecies highlight the importance of considering intraspecific variation when modelling vulnerability to climate and land-use changes. The predicted decrease in proportion of suitable ranges falling inside PAs threatens global capacity to effectively conserve leopards because survival rates are substantially lower outside PAs due to persecution. Hence, it is important to work with local communities to address negative human-wildlife interactions and to restore habitats to retain landscape connectivity where PA coverage is low. On the other hand, the predicted increase in range sui, Predicting the effects of global environmental changes on species distribution is a top conservation priority, particularly for large carnivores, that contribute to regulating and maintaining ecosystems. As the most widespread and adaptable large felid, ranging across Africa and Asia, leopards are crucial to many ecosystems as both keystone and umbrella species, yet they are threatened across their ranges. We used intraspecific species distribution models (SDMs) to predict changes in range suitability for leopards under future climate and land-use change and identify conservation gaps and opportunities. We generated intraspecific SDMs for the three western leopard subspecies, the African, Panthera pardus pardus; Arabian, Panthera pardus nimr; and Persian, Panthera pardus tulliana, leopards, and overlapped predictions with protected areas (PAs) coverage. We show that leopard subspecies differ in their environmental associations and vulnerability to future changes. The African and Arabian leopards are predicted to lose ~25% and ~14% of their currently suitable range, respectively, while the Persian leopard is predicted to experience ~12% range gains. We found that most areas predicted to be suitable were not protected, with only 4%–16% of the subspecies' ranges falling inside PAs, and that these proportions will decrease in the future. The highly variable responses we found between leopard subspecies highlight the importance of considering intraspecific variation when modelling vulnerability to climate and land-use changes. The predicted decrease in proportion of suitable ranges falling inside PAs threatens global capacity to effectively conserve leopards because survival rates are substantially lower outside PAs due to persecution. Hence, it is important to work with local communities to address negative human-wildlife interactions and to restore habitats to retain landscape connectivity where PA coverage is low. On the other hand, the predicted increase in range

Strong genetic structure has prompted discussion regarding giraffe taxonomy,1,2,3 including a suggestion to split the giraffe into four species: Northern (Giraffa c. camelopardalis), Reticulated (G. c. reticulata), Masai (G. c. tippelskirchi), and Southern giraffes (G. c. giraffa).4,5,6 However, their evolutionary history is not yet fully resolved, as previous studies used a simple bifurcating model and did not explore the presence or extent of gene flow between lineages. We therefore inferred a model that incorporates various evolutionary processes to assess the drivers of contemporary giraffe diversity. We analyzed whole-genome sequencing data from 90 wild giraffes from 29 localities across their current distribution. The most basal divergence was dated to 280 kya. Genetic differentiation, FST, among major lineages ranged between 0.28 and 0.62, and we found significant levels of ancient gene flow between them. In particular, several analyses suggested that the Reticulated lineage evolved through admixture, with almost equal contribution from the Northern lineage and an ancestral lineage related to Masai and Southern giraffes. These new results highlight a scenario of strong differentiation despite gene flow, providing further context for the interpretation of giraffe diversity and the process of speciation in general. They also illustrate that conservation measures need to target various lineages and sublineages and that separate management strategies are needed to conserve giraffe diversity effectively. Given local extinctions and recent dramatic declines in many giraffe populations, this improved understanding of giraffe evolutionary history is relevant for conservation interventions, including reintroductions and reinforcements of existing populations., Strong genetic structure has prompted discussion regarding giraffe taxonomy,1,2,3 including a suggestion to split the giraffe into four species: Northern (Giraffa c. camelopardalis), Reticulated (G. c. reticulata), Masai (G. c. tippelskirchi), and Southern giraffes (G. c. giraffa).4,5,6 However, their evolutionary history is not yet fully resolved, as previous studies used a simple bifurcating model and did not explore the presence or extent of gene flow between lineages. We therefore inferred a model that incorporates various evolutionary processes to assess the drivers of contemporary giraffe diversity. We analyzed whole-genome sequencing data from 90 wild giraffes from 29 localities across their current distribution. The most basal divergence was dated to 280 kya. Genetic differentiation, FST, among major lineages ranged between 0.28 and 0.62, and we found significant levels of ancient gene flow between them. In particular, several analyses suggested that the Reticulated lineage evolved through admixture, with almost equal contribution from the Northern lineage and an ancestral lineage related to Masai and Southern giraffes. These new results highlight a scenario of strong differentiation despite gene flow, providing further context for the interpretation of giraffe diversity and the process of speciation in general. They also illustrate that conservation measures need to target various lineages and sublineages and that separate management strategies are needed to conserve giraffe diversity effectively. Given local extinctions and recent dramatic declines in many giraffe populations, this improved understanding of giraffe evolutionary history is relevant for conservation interventions, including reintroductions and reinforcements of existing populations.

The decline of lions (Panthera leo) in Kenya has raised conservation concerns about their overall population health and long-term survival. This study aimed to assess the genetic structure, differentiation and diversity of lion populations in the country, while considering the influence of past management practices. Using a lion-specific Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) panel, we genotyped 171 individuals from 12 populations representative of areas with permanent lion presence. Our results revealed a distinct genetic pattern with pronounced population structure, confirmed a north-south split and found no indication of inbreeding in any of the tested populations. Differentiation seems to be primarily driven by geographical barriers, human presence and climatic factors, but management practices may have also affected the observed patterns. Notably, the Tsavo population displayed evidence of admixture, perhaps attributable to its geographic location as a suture zone, vast size or past translocations, while the fenced populations of Lake Nakuru National Park and Solio Ranch exhibited reduced genetic diversity due to restricted natural dispersal. The Amboseli population had a high number of monomorphic loci likely reflecting a historical population decline. This illustrates that patterns of genetic diversity should be seen in the context of population histories and that future management decisions should take these insights into account. To address the conservation implications of our findings, we recommend prioritizing the maintenance of suitable habitats to facilitate population connectivity. Initiation of genetic restoration efforts and separately managing populations with unique evolutionary histories is crucial for preserving genetic diversity and promoting long-term population viability., The decline of lions (Panthera leo) in Kenya has raised conservation concerns about their overall population health and long-term survival. This study aimed to assess the genetic structure, differentiation and diversity of lion populations in the country, while considering the influence of past management practices. Using a lion-specific Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) panel, we genotyped 171 individuals from 12 populations representative of areas with permanent lion presence. Our results revealed a distinct genetic pattern with pronounced population structure, confirmed a north-south split and found no indication of inbreeding in any of the tested populations. Differentiation seems to be primarily driven by geographical barriers, human presence and climatic factors, but management practices may have also affected the observed patterns. Notably, the Tsavo population displayed evidence of admixture, perhaps attributable to its geographic location as a suture zone, vast size or past translocations, while the fenced populations of Lake Nakuru National Park and Solio Ranch exhibited reduced genetic diversity due to restricted natural dispersal. The Amboseli population had a high number of monomorphic loci likely reflecting a historical population decline. This illustrates that patterns of genetic diversity should be seen in the context of population histories and that future management decisions should take these insights into account. To address the conservation implications of our findings, we recommend prioritizing the maintenance of suitable habitats to facilitate population connectivity. Initiation of genetic restoration efforts and separately managing populations with unique evolutionary histories is crucial for preserving genetic diversity and promoting long-term population viability.

Molecular tools are increasingly applied for assessing and monitoring biodiversity and informing conservation action. While recent developments in genetic and genomic methods provide greater sensitivity in analysis and the capacity to address new questions, they are not equally available to all practitioners: There is considerable bias across institutions and countries in access to technologies, funding, and training. Consequently, in many cases, more accessible traditional genetic data (e.g., microsatellites) are still utilized for making conservation decisions. Conservation approaches need to be pragmatic by tackling clearly defined management questions and using the most appropriate methods available, while maximizing the use of limited resources. Here we present some key questions to consider when applying the molecular toolbox for accessible and actionable conservation management. Finally, we highlight a number of important steps to be addressed in a collaborative way, which can facilitate the broad integration of molecular data into conservation., Molecular tools are increasingly applied for assessing and monitoring biodiversity and informing conservation action. While recent developments in genetic and genomic methods provide greater sensitivity in analysis and the capacity to address new questions, they are not equally available to all practitioners: There is considerable bias across institutions and countries in access to technologies, funding, and training. Consequently, in many cases, more accessible traditional genetic data (e.g., microsatellites) are still utilized for making conservation decisions. Conservation approaches need to be pragmatic by tackling clearly defined management questions and using the most appropriate methods available, while maximizing the use of limited resources. Here we present some key questions to consider when applying the molecular toolbox for accessible and actionable conservation management. Finally, we highlight a number of important steps to be addressed in a collaborative way, which can facilitate the broad integration of molecular data into conservation.

To inform the conservation of the Regionally Critically Endangered West African lion, we studied lion population size and social structure in Niokolo Koba National Park (NKNP), Senegal. Calling station and camera trap surveys were conducted and opportunistic lion observations were documented from 2015 to 2020. The average lion density was calculated as 0.50 lion/100 km2 and the population size was estimated as 28–56 individuals. Average lion group size was 2.1 ± 1.45 lions (range 1–8 lions). There were no significant differences between observations of single individuals (43%), groups of two (22%), three (19%), four (4%) and more than four (5%) individual lions (X2 = 30.021, p-value = 0.06452). Sex ratio showed a ratio of male:female of 1:1.1 to 1:2.8. About 13.59% of the lion population was composed of cubs while, respectively, 81.22% and 5.17% were adults and subadults. Based on the analysis of activity patterns, lions in NKNP are mainly nocturno-crepuscular (18:00–01:00) and matutinal (06:00–08:00). Lion population size and density are still low in NKNP compared to earlier estimates from the same area, in the late 1990s. We therefore conclude that the conservation of lions in NKNP must be further improved to safeguard this population in the long term., To inform the conservation of the Regionally Critically Endangered West African lion, we studied lion population size and social structure in Niokolo Koba National Park (NKNP), Senegal. Calling station and camera trap surveys were conducted and opportunistic lion observations were documented from 2015 to 2020. The average lion density was calculated as 0.50 lion/100 km2 and the population size was estimated as 28–56 individuals. Average lion group size was 2.1 ± 1.45 lions (range 1–8 lions). There were no significant differences between observations of single individuals (43%), groups of two (22%), three (19%), four (4%) and more than four (5%) individual lions (X2 = 30.021, p-value = 0.06452). Sex ratio showed a ratio of male:female of 1:1.1 to 1:2.8. About 13.59% of the lion population was composed of cubs while, respectively, 81.22% and 5.17% were adults and subadults. Based on the analysis of activity patterns, lions in NKNP are mainly nocturno-crepuscular (18:00–01:00) and matutinal (06:00–08:00). Lion population size and density are still low in NKNP compared to earlier estimates from the same area, in the late 1990s. We therefore conclude that the conservation of lions in NKNP must be further improved to safeguard this population in the long term.

The iconic Cape buffalo has experienced several documented population declines in recent history. These declines have been largely attributed to the late 19th century rinderpest pandemic. However, the effect of the rinderpest pandemic on their genetic diversity remains contentious, and other factors that have potentially affected this diversity include environmental changes during the Pleistocene, range expansions and recent human activity. Motivated by this, we present analyses of whole genome sequencing data from 59 individuals from across the Cape buffalo range to assess present-day levels of genome-wide genetic diversity and what factors have influenced these levels. We found that the Cape buffalo has high average heterozygosity overall (0.40%), with the two southernmost populations having significantly lower heterozygosity levels (0.33% and 0.29%) on par with that of the domesticated water buffalo (0.29%). Interestingly, we found that these lower levels are probably due to recent inbreeding (average fraction of runs of homozygosity 23.7% and 19.9%) rather than factors further back in time during the Pleistocene. Moreover, detailed investigations of recent demographic history show that events across the past three centuries were the main drivers of the exceptional loss of genetic diversity in the southernmost populations, coincident with the onset of colonialism in the southern extreme of the Cape buffalo range. Hence, our results add to the growing body of studies suggesting that multiple recent human-mediated impacts during the colonial period caused massive losses of large mammal abundance in southern Africa.

Knowledge of food web interactions is essential for understanding the role of carnivores in an ecosystem and designing appropriate conservation and management strategies to preserve them. These interactions can only be understood by studying carnivores' diets and obtaining comprehensive and unbiased diet data. For large carnivores—which typically rely on large herbivores as prey—the role of smaller prey species has not received attention. This study aims to quantify the contribution of small (5–50 kg) and very small (<5 kg) prey taxa in the diet of lions (Panthera leo melanochaita) in four Kenyan National Parks (NPs). We use DNA metabarcoding to achieve higher-resolution insights into prey composition, which is less biased toward large prey species compared to traditional methods, such as carcass counts. Our study identified 24 prey taxa in a total of 171 lion fecal samples. Small and very small prey taxa together contributed 18.7% out of 278 prey occurrences in all fecal samples, with comparable small prey presence (ranging from 8% to 15%) in the diet for each NP studied. This approach proved to be useful in detecting small and very small prey species in the diet of lions and can therefore be used in future research to uncover the diverse diet composition of these large carnivores. The consistent presence of smaller prey species in the diet indicates that lions generally supplement their large prey diet with smaller prey., Knowledge of food web interactions is essential for understanding the role of carnivores in an ecosystem and designing appropriate conservation and management strategies to preserve them. These interactions can only be understood by studying carnivores' diets and obtaining comprehensive and unbiased diet data. For large carnivores—which typically rely on large herbivores as prey—the role of smaller prey species has not received attention. This study aims to quantify the contribution of small (5–50 kg) and very small (<5 kg) prey taxa in the diet of lions (Panthera leo melanochaita) in four Kenyan National Parks (NPs). We use DNA metabarcoding to achieve higher-resolution insights into prey composition, which is less biased toward large prey species compared to traditional methods, such as carcass counts. Our study identified 24 prey taxa in a total of 171 lion fecal samples. Small and very small prey taxa together contributed 18.7% out of 278 prey occurrences in all fecal samples, with comparable small prey presence (ranging from 8% to 15%) in the diet for each NP studied. This approach proved to be useful in detecting small and very small prey species in the diet of lions and can therefore be used in future research to uncover the diverse diet composition of these large carnivores. The consistent presence of smaller prey species in the diet indicates that lions generally supplement their large prey diet with smaller prey.

African wild pigs have a contentious evolutionary and biogeographic history. Until recently, desert warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) and common warthog (P. africanus) were considered a single species. Molecular evidence surprisingly suggested they diverged at least 4.4 million years ago, and possibly outside of Africa. We sequenced the first whole-genomes of four desert warthogs and 35 common warthogs from throughout their range. We show that these two species diverged much later than previously estimated, 400,000-1,700,000 years ago depending on assumptions of gene flow. This brings it into agreement with the paleontological record. We found that the common warthog originated in western Africa and subsequently colonized eastern and southern Africa. During this range expansion, the common warthog interbred with the desert warthog, presumably in eastern Africa, underlining this region's importance in African biogeography. We found that immune system-related genes may have adaptively introgressed into common warthogs, indicating that resistance to novel diseases was one of the most potent drivers of evolution as common warthogs expanded their range. Hence, we solve some of the key controversies surrounding warthog evolution and reveal a complex evolutionary history involving range expansion, introgression, and adaptation to new diseases.

Conservation translocations have become an important management tool, particularly for large wildlife species such as the lion (Panthera leo). When planning translocations, the genetic background of populations needs to be taken into account; failure to do so risks disrupting existing patterns of genetic variation, ultimately leading to genetic homogenization, and thereby reducing resilience and adaptability of the species. We urge wildlife managers to include knowledge of the genetic background of source/target populations, as well as species-wide patterns, in any management intervention. We present a hierarchical decision-making tool in which we list 132 lion populations/lion conservation units and provide information on genetic assignment, uncertainty and suitability for translocation for each source/target combination. By including four levels of suitability, from ‘first choice’ to ‘no option’, we provide managers with a range of options. To illustrate the extent of international trade of lions, and the potential disruption of natural patterns of intraspecific diversity, we mined the CITES Trade Database for estimated trade quantities of live individuals imported into lion range states during the past 4 decades. We identified 1056 recorded individuals with a potential risk of interbreeding with wild lions, 772 being captive-sourced. Scoring each of the records with our decision-making tool illustrates that only 7% of the translocated individuals were ‘first choice’ and 73% were ‘no option’. We acknowledge that other, nongenetic factors are important in the decision-making process, and hence a pragmatic approach is needed. A framework in which source/target populations are scored based on suitability is not only relevant to lion, but also to other species of wildlife that are frequently translocated. We hope that the presented overview supports managers to include genetics in future management decisions and contributes towards conservation of the lion in its f

The 196 parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) will soon agree to a post-2020 global framework for conserving the three elements of biodiversity (genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity) while ensuring sustainable development and benefit sharing. As the most significant global conservation policy mechanism, the new CBD framework has far-reaching consequences- it will guide conservation actions and reporting for each member country until 2050. In previous CBD strategies, as well as other major conservation policy mechanisms, targets and indicators for genetic diversity (variation at the DNA level within species, which facilitates species adaptation and ecosystem function) were undeveloped and focused on species of agricultural relevance. We assert that, to meet global conservation goals, genetic diversity within all species, not just domesticated species and their wild relatives, must be conserved and monitored using appropriate metrics. Building on suggestions in a recent Letter in Science (Laikre et al., 2020) we expand argumentation for three new, pragmatic genetic indicators and modifications to two current indicators for maintaining genetic diversity and adaptive capacity of all species, and provide guidance on their practical use. The indicators are: 1) the number of populations with effective population size above versus below 500, 2) the proportion of populations maintained within species, 3) the number of species and populations in which genetic diversity is monitored using DNA-based methods. We also present and discuss Goals and Action Targets for post-2020 biodiversity conservation which are connected to these indicators and underlying data. These pragmatic indicators and goals have utility beyond the CBD; they should benefit conservation and monitoring of genetic diversity via national and global policy for decades to come.