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• Evidence-based early childhood computer science curriculum utilizing the free ScratchJr programming, Coding as Another Language (CAL). • Results from cluster randomized controlled trial show CAL's feasibility to implement, and effectiveness for improving coding skills. • Despite the time taken away from the math and literacy blocks to teach CAL, standardized test for literacy improved and math remained the same. • During the cluster randomized controlled trial, both the control and the intervention groups improved equally on computational thinking. This paper describes the iterative research and evaluation of the Coding as Another Language (CAL) curriculum that utilizes the free ScratchJr programming language in kindergarten to second grade. CAL was designed using principles of three theoretical frameworks: Curriculum Research Framework (CRF), which proposes different phases in the creation of research-based curriculum; Constructionism, which presents a computationally-rich project-based methodology based on identifying powerful ideas from a learning domain; and Positive Technological Development, which intentionally integrates socio-emotional and ethical dimensions into curricular experiences. The pedagogical foundation of CAL involves the understanding of coding as a literacy, that is, putting developmentally-appropriate powerful ideas of computer science in conversation with those taught in language arts. The paper first describes CAL and then presents results from both a pilot study and a cluster randomized controlled trial that set to evaluate CAL's feasibility and impact on students' learning outcomes. Our findings showed that the CAL curriculum was not only feasible to implement, but also effective for improving coding skills. However, CAL's impact on computational thinking is less clear given that in the cluster randomized controlled trial, both the control and the intervention groups improved equally on a measure of computational thinking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With a growing number of ScratchJr usage, over 19 million users worldwide, we examined the use in the United States of the free ScratchJr programming language, explicitly designed for young children ages 5–7, to learn how to code. Our objective was to explore children's usage of the ScratchJr tablet app at home and school settings. We analyzed usage data from Google Analytics in 1.5 years, comparing Scratchsr usage in the two different settings. Our dataset comprised a total of 4,352,802 coding sessions, generated by a daily average of 2525 home users and 9969 school users. The results suggested that, although children in both settings on average spent an equal duration with ScratchJr, children in home settings spent more time exploring advanced coding blocks and the paint editor compared to children at school. Further, children at school tended to use similar types of coding blocks across several days. In contrast, children at home were more likely to use a diversity of block categories and difficulty levels. The implications of this research are, first, that usage patterns may help us understand how children across settings learn to program differently. Second, based on these findings, it may be essential for parents at home and educators at school to consider using different approaches and strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the 1960s, a group of educators and researchers have championed the idea that learning coding and learning to read and write are, in some sense, part of the same skill set, but the grounds for asserting that similarity have continually shifted. Some have argued that as texts increasingly integrate digital components, expertise in coding will become a central part of reading in the 21st century. Others seem to use the word literacy simply to mean an important skill, without necessarily asserting a deeper similarity. In this study of novice writers and programmers in a second‐grade classroom, the authors explored a third hypothesis: that there is a fundamental relation between the activities involved in creating a written story and in creating a computer program. The findings of this research suggest that teachers can use a combination of coding and writing to reinforce students' acquisition of the writing process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Men continue to outnumber women in many Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics fields, particularly technical fields such as engineering and computer science. Educational interventions aimed at addressing the gender disparity between men and women have generally focused on increasing the interest of girls and women during high school and college. There is limited research on interventions that take place during the formative early childhood years. This study addresses this gap by working with young children (ages 5–7) and exploring their newly forming attitudes and interest in technology and engineering. The study asked the following research questions: (1) What are children's initial attitudes and ideas about technology and engineering? (2) Do boys and girls differ in their initial attitudes about technology and engineering? (3) Does participation in a 7-week KIBO robotics curriculum have an impact on children's attitudes and ideas about technology and engineering? (4) Do boys and girls perform differently on robotics and programming tasks in early childhood? To answer these questions, public school children in Kindergarten through second grade (N = 105) participated in an introductory KIBO robotics curriculum. Data was collected on their attitudes toward technology and engineering before and after participation in the curriculum as well as their mastery of programming concepts taught. Results provide preliminary evidence that a developmentally appropriate robotics curriculum can increase girls' interest in engineering. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim/Purpose: Educational robotics competitions are a popular way to increase students' interest in science and engineering during their K-12 years. However, female students are typically underrepresented in these competitions. The goal of this study is to determine differences in the experiences of male and female robotics competition students in order to better support female students and increase their representation in competition leagues. Background: VEX Robotics Competitions are one of the fastest-growing educational robotics competitions available to middle school and high school students around the world. Despite growing numbers of participants, VEX programs have a noticeable lack of female participants. In order to create a more diverse and representative program, it is important to investigate why fewer female students participate in the competitions and what can be done to better support female students. Methodology: Qualitative and quantitative data were collected from VEX mentors and students through online surveys. A total sample of N=675 VEX mentors and students participated (n=47 students and n=628 mentors). The surveys asked scaled, multiple choice, and free response questions. Through these surveys, the following research questions are answered: 1) What (if any) are the differences between male and female student experiences with VEX? 2) What (if any) are the differences in male and female students' confidence in their technical ability? and 3) What (if any) are the differences in male and female students' performance on VEX related robotics team tasks?. Contribution: This study contributes to the growing body of work on engaging female students, and other underrepresented students, in STEM fields such as programming, engineering, and robotics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Computer programming for young children has grown in popularity among both educators and product developers, but still relatively little is known about what skills children are developing when they code. This study investigated N = 57 Kindergarten through second grade children's performance on a programming assessment after engaging in a 6-week curricular intervention. Children used the ScratchJr programming tool to create animated stories, collages, and games. At the end of the learning intervention, children were assessed on their knowledge of the ScratchJr language and underlying reasoning. Specifically, we explored children's errors on the assessment to determine evidence of domain-specific reasoning (e.g. mathematic, verbal, causal). Results show that while all students mastered foundational coding concepts, there were marked differences in performance and comprehension across the three grade levels. Interpretation of results suggests a developmental progression inherent in programming knowledge acquisition.; Implications for computer programming education and developmental research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, Singapore has increased its national emphasis on technology and engineering in early childhood education. Their newest initiative, the Playmaker Programme, has focused on teaching robotics and coding in preschool settings. Robotics offers a playful and collaborative way for children to engage with foundational technology and engineering concepts during their formative early childhood years. This study looks at a sample of preschool children (N = 98) from five early childhood centers in Singapore who completed a 7-week STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) KIBO robotics curriculum in their classrooms called, “Dances from Around the World.” KIBO is a newly developed robotics kit that teaches both engineering and programming. KIBO’s actions are programmed using tangible programming blocks—no screen-time required. Children’s knowledge of programming concepts were assessed upon completion of the curriculum using the Solve-Its assessment. Results indicate that children were highly successful at mastering foundational programming concepts. Additionally, teachers were successful at promoting a collaborative and creative environment, but less successful at finding ways to engage with the greater school community through robotics. This research study was part of a large country-wide initiative to increase the use of developmentally appropriate engineering tools in early childhood settings. Implications for the design of technology, curriculum, and other resources are addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

By engaging in construction-based robotics activities, children as young as four can play to learn a range of concepts. The TangibleK Robotics Program paired developmentally appropriate computer programming and robotics tools with a constructionist curriculum designed to engage kindergarten children in learning computational thinking, robotics, programming, and problem-solving. This paper documents three kindergarten classrooms' exposure to computer programming concepts and explores learning outcomes. Results point to strengths of the curriculum and areas where further redesign of the curriculum and technologies would be appropriate. Overall, the study demonstrates that kindergartners were both interested in and able to learn many aspects of robotics, programming, and computational thinking with the TangibleK curriculum design. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Young learners today generate, express, and interact with sophisticated ideas using a range of digital tools to explore interactive stories, animations, computer games, and robotics. In recent years, new developmentally appropriate robotics kits have been entering early childhood classrooms. This paper presents a retrospective analysis of one study within a design-based robotics research program. We examine how patterns of cognition throughout early childhood relate to programming approaches and achievement in a robotics context. The findings lay a foundation for applying cognitive developmental theory to early technology education and inform the evaluation of the study's programming and robotics technologies and curriculum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a digital era in which technology plays a role in most aspects of a child's life, having the competence and confidence to use computers might be a necessary step, but not a goal in itself. Developing character traits that will serve children to use technology in a safe way to communicate and connect with others, and providing opportunities for children to make a better world through the use of their computational skills, is just as important. The Positive Technological Development framework (PTD), a natural extension of the computer literacy and the technological fluency movements that have influenced the world of educational technology, adds psychosocial, civic, and ethical components to the cognitive ones. PTD examines the developmental tasks of a child growing up in our digital era and provides a model for developing and evaluating technology-rich youth programs. The explicit goal of PTD programs is to support children in the positive uses of technology to lead more fulfilling lives and make the world a better place. This article introduces the concept of PTD and presents examples of the Zora virtual world program for young people that the author developed following this framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses various reports published within the issue including one on Positive Technological Development (PTD), one on the role of youth as content creators, and on the use of mobile phones by adolescents in Africa.

This report describes preliminary efforts to implement a computer-based application, called Zora, in a pediatric hemodialysis unit. The feasibility and safety of establishing a virtual community in the hemodialysis unit are explored. Zora allows users to design and inhabit a graphical virtual city where they create characters, stories and spaces while communicating in realtime. Over a 5-month period, 7 hemodialysis patients and 4 unit staff found Zora enjoyable and safe. The results support the premise that computational environments may offer an opportunity for pediatric patients and their caregivers to participate in virtual communities that promote coping with chronic physical illnesses. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 2003, 42(4):493-496. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is a need for developmentally appropriate Computational Thinking (CT) assessments that can be implemented in early childhood classrooms. We developed a new instrument called TechCheck for assessing CT skills in young children that does not require prior knowledge of computer programming. TechCheck is based on developmentally appropriate CT concepts and uses a multiple-choice "unplugged" format that allows it to be administered to whole classes or online settings in under 15 min. This design allows assessment of a broad range of abilities and avoids conflating coding with CT skills. We validated the instrument in a cohort of 5–9-year-old students (N = 768) participating in a research study involving a robotics coding curriculum. TechCheck showed good reliability and validity according to measures of classical test theory and item response theory. Discrimination between skill levels was adequate. Difficulty was suitable for first graders and low for second graders. The instrument showed differences in performance related to race/ethnicity. TechCheck scores correlated moderately with a previously validated CT assessment tool (TACTIC-KIBO). Overall, TechCheck has good psychometric properties, is easy to administer and score, and discriminates between children of different CT abilities. Implications, limitations, and directions for future work are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Educational tools and apps designed to teach coding and computational thinking to children have risen in popularity in the last several years. However, there is little research that explores how families with young children code together in informal environments. This study explored how children ages 5-7 and their parents jointly program with the ScratchJr app. N = 58 families attended ScratchJr Family Days, single-day events for families to engage in an interactive ScratchJr session. Three additional parent-child dyads participated in a follow-up observational study, in which they were videotaped while working on an open-ended ScratchJr activity. Findings indicated that parents reported engaging as observers and coaches, whereas children engaged as planners. There were moderate, positive associations between children's prior coding interest and their engagement in debugging, as well as between children's role as playmates and their engagement in the design process. Implications and opportunities for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Computer programming tools for young children are being created and used in early childhood classrooms more than ever. However, little is known about the relationship between a teacher’s unique instructional style and their students’ ability to explore and retain programming content. In this mixed-methods study, quantitative and qualitative data were collected from N = 6 teachers and N = 222 Kindergarten through second grade students at six schools across the United States. These teachers and students participated in an investigation of the relationship between teaching styles and student learning outcomes. All participants engaged in a minimum of two lessons and a maximum of seven lessons using the ScratchJr programming environment to introduce coding. Teachers reported on their classroom structure, lesson plan, teaching style and comfort with technology. They also administered ScratchJr Solve It assessments to capture various aspects of students’ programming comprehension, which were analyzed for trends in learning outcomes. Results from this descriptive, exploratory study show that all students were successful in attaining foundational ScratchJr programming comprehension. Statistically significant findings revealed higher programming achievement in students whose educators demonstrated flexibility in lesson planning, responsiveness to student needs, technological content expertise, and concern for developing students’ independent thinking. Implications for research in the development of computational thinking strategies are discussed, as well as suggestions for successfully implementing early childhood classroom interventions with ScratchJr. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

KIBO is a developmentally appropriate robotics kit for young children that is programmed using interlocking wooden blocks; no screens or keyboards are required. This study describes a pilot KIBO robotics curriculum at an urban public preschool in Rhode Island and presents data collected on children's knowledge of foundational programming concepts after completing the curriculum. The curriculum was designed to integrate music, literacy, and design with engineering and robotics. Children (N= 64) from seven preschool classrooms, ranging in age from 3 to 5, participated in the study. Findings indicated that children as young as age 3 could create syntactically correct programs for the KIBO robot, although older preschoolers (closer to age 5) performed better than younger preschoolers on a standardized programming task. Additionally, all students generally performed better on the programming tasks that required them to manipulate less programming instructions. Implications for designing developmentally appropriate curriculum and scaffolding for young children are addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim/Purpose This paper presents findings on a curricular intervention aimed at integrating computer programming with reading and writing in early elementary school. The purpose of this research was to explore the relation between students' varying literacy levels and their level of success in mastering an introductory programming language. Methodology This curricular intervention study was implemented in a single school district in southeastern Virginia. Of the district's 33 elementary schools, eight schools received an external grant from the U.S. Department of Defense to introduce computer science in early elementary education. Standardized literacy test scores were correlated with internally developed, and age appropriate programming assessment scores from N = 132 second grade students. Contribution This study is the first of its kind to look at how students at varying literacy levels succeed in mastering an introductory programming language when introduced through a literacy lens. Findings The findings indicated that there was strong evidence for a weak, positive correlation between students' literacy levels, as determined by the PALS assessment, and their programming mastery, as determined by the curricular programming assessments. The positive correlation suggests that there may indeed be underlying constructs that overlap between literacy and programming. Recommendations for Practitioners Consider integrating computer programming as a foundational component of the literacy curriculum, especially in the early grades, where the two skill sets can mutually support one another. Recommendations for Researchers Additional research is necessary, using a variety of literacy and programming measures, to continue to understand the relationship between emerging literacy and emerging computer programming skills. Impact on Society Reimagining computer programming as a language has significant implications for how we teach programming in schools and how students then use programming out in the workforce. Future Research Future work will repeat this curricular intervention with younger students: the district's first grade and kindergarten classrooms. Introducing programming through the Coding as Literacy (CAL) approach even earlier in students' literacy trajectories, we believe, will allow the positive impact of programming knowledge to influence students' literacy development. In this next phase of our research agenda, we will collect pre and post literacy scores, both standardized and internally developed, to see the myriad ways that programming knowledge impacts literacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Computer programming is becoming essential across fields. Traditionally grouped with science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines, programming also bears parallels to natural languages. These parallels may translate into overlapping processing mechanisms. Investigating the cognitive basis of programming is important for understanding the human mind and could transform education practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]