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Resumen Se presentan los resultados de fluorescencia de rayos-X realizados a 12 artefactos provenientes de contextos funerarios Chinchorro, Arica, norte de Chile, focalizándose la discusión en el manganeso (Mn). La muestra con mayor concentración de Mn fue analizada con espectrometría Raman, para avanzar en la identificación estructural del cromóforo negro correspondiente. Todos los artefactos dieron positivo para la presencia de Mn con un rango de 1,11%-63,66%, considerándose antrópico sobre 2% (83,33% del total) y el pigmento analizado fue identificado como criptomelano y goetita.

During the expansion of Tawantinsuyo, the Inca Empire sustained its hegemony by using multiple strategies, including moving specialized groups called mitimaes to their conquered territories. This study examines bioarchaeological evidence from the Camarones 9 (CAM-9) Inca period cemetery at the mouth of the Camarones Valley in northern Chile. The waters in this valley contain concentrations of arsenic that are 100 times above the norm (10 μg/L) for human ingestion, causing serious health consequences. We study the environmental health effects on this population, using atomic absorption spectrometry and hydride generation to investigate arsenic concentration in the bone tissues of 16 individuals sampled from this burial site. Three of four individuals presented arsenic levels in their bones that were beyond the standard 1 μg/g, with a median of 3.6 μg/g; in some, the levels were nine times higher than those currently recommended by the World Health Organization. Considering previous and current bioarchaeological evidence, especially the high arsenic levels found in these individuals, we postulate that the CAM-9 site population corresponds to mitimaes who settled on the Camarones coast. This study is relevant to all regions of the world that present ecotoxic loads.

Funerary art has the body as its main material component, expresses responses to death and offers insight into relationships between the living and the dead. Chinchorro hunter-gatherer-fisher societies along the Atacama Desert coast provide a key example of such connections, having developed one of the world's oldest-known systems of post-mortem body transformation (c. 7000–3250 BP). A study of 162 modified Chinchorro bodies identifies diachronic changes in these practices, including a decrease in internal stuffing—adding invisible contents that created corporeal volume—and an increase in external body treatment that created visible features. The authors propose that such manipulation was a meaningful form of social embodiment designed to construct a collective identity.

The chemical and mineralogical characterization of seven ceramic fragments produced within Tiwanaku state (c.500-1000 ce) is reported. The instrumental techniques used included X-ray elemental and mineralogical chemical analysis, Raman spectroscopy, and scanning and light microscopy. The results indicate there are several clay types, although they show similarities, such as the use of a plant-based temper. The red colour of the decoration is hematite, and manganese oxides such as jacobsite are present in the black. The white colour is a mixture of gypsum and clay, and the orange is a mixture of hematite and clay. The use of colours, the quality of the clays and the temperatures reached during pottery firing point to expertise in ceramic production and to complex decision-making processes. The multi-elemental archaeometric approach documented here could become an important tool to shed a light on ancient ceramic technology and the internal variance of Tiwanaku pottery.

In the extreme north of Chile, the genus

Resumen: Se presentan los resultados del estudio orientado a entender el rol social del aríbalo en el norte de Chile durante el Tawantinsuyu o Período Tardío (1400-1536 Dc). En la decoración de algunos de estos objetos se observa iconografía aymara, y a su vez, las distintas especies vegetales contenidas (maíz, frijol, yuca, pallar) podrían estar relacionadas con ritos fúnebres propios del Collasuyu. En resumen, la circulación de formas con influencia Inca (i.e. el aríbalo), a través de los ritos fune rarios locales, permite entender la identidad del sujeto en el contexto fúnebre.

Algunos valles del norte de Chile presentan alto contenido de boro en sus aguas (> 25 mg/L), reservorios naturales para el consumo humano. En las poblaciones precolombinas del norte de Chile, este consumo conllevó una sobreingesta de boro, elemento nocivo para la salud que causa problemas gastrointestinales, entre otros. Las aguas de los valles de Lluta y Camarones presentan los promedios más elevados de boro (14 y 25 mg/L respectivamente) y el valle de Azapa, los más bajos (1 mg/L). Considerando estos antecedentes, mediante espectrofotometría de absorción molecular se estudiaron muestras de costillas de 211 individuos de los valles señalados, para estimar las concentraciones de boro en poblaciones precolombinas del norte de Chile. Todas las muestras estudiadas presentaron valores promedios entre aproximadamente 7 a 23 veces más que los reportados para poblaciones modernas (10,2 mg/Kg de boro). Las poblaciones que habitaron los valles de Lluta (235,52 mg/Kg) y Camarones (119,09 mg/Kg) fueron las más afectadas, seguidas por el valle de Azapa (69,97 mg/Kg). Concluimos que las antiguas poblaciones del norte de Chile fueron significativamente afectadas por la sobreingesta de boro y que la calidad de las aguas debería ser considerada en las discusiones sobre el poblamiento y trayectorias bioculturales precolombinas.

This presentation honors Arthur Aufderheide (1922-2013), or “Ar t,” as he liked to be called. He was a full Professor at the University of Minnesota, Medical School for 31 years. His many contributions can be summarized in two lines of research: (a) soft and hard tissue mummy pathology and (b) biochemical analysis on prehistoric bodies. He found ancient Andean populations that had suffered from pneumonia and tuberculosis. His isotopic dietary reconstructions revealed that prehistoric populations of South America relied heavily on maritime resources, supplemented with wild plants and land mammals. His research was synthesized in more than 100 articles and several books.Two of his most cited works were published in the PNAS journal “Identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA in a pre-Columbian Peruvian mummy,” 1994 and “A 9,000-year record of Chagas ́ Disease,” 2003. Finally, he was the founding father of the World Con- gress on Mummy Studies. His commitment has certainly flourished.

OBJECTIVES This study explores whether ancient Atacama Desert populations in northern Chile were exposed to endemic boron contamination. MATERIALS AND METHODS Using Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), we studied 144 strands of ancient mummy hair, ranging from 3000 B.C. to 1500 A.D., excavated from the Lluta, Azapa, and Camarones valleys in northern Chile. We tested whether these ancient populations showed signs of significant boron concentration in hair tissue. RESULTS On average, all individuals from these valleys showed high boron concentrations, ranging from 1.5 to 4 times above the average boron concentration in contemporary hair (baseline

Here we evaluate Bhattacharya et al.'s (2018) recent paper "Whole-genome sequencing of Atacama skeleton shows novel mutations linked with dysplasia" published in Genome Research. In this short report, we examine the hypothesis that the so-called "Atacama skeleton" has skeletal abnormalities indicative of dysplasia, critique the validity of the interpretations of disease based on genomic analyses, and comment on the ethics of research on this partially mummified human foetus. The current paper acts as a case study of the importance of using an anthropological approach for aDNA research on human remains. A critical evaluation of the ethically controversial paper by Bhattacharya et al. highlights how an understanding of skeletal biological processes, including normal and abnormal growth and development, taphonomic processes, environmental context, and close attention to ethical issues of dealing with human remains, is vital to scientific interpretations. To this end, close collaboration with palaeopathologists and local archaeologists through appropriate peer-reviewed journals will add to the rigour of scientific interpretation and circumvent misinterpretation.

This article describes the hidden natural chemical contaminants present in a unique desert environment and their health consequences on ancient populations. Currently, millions of people are affected worldwide by toxic elements such as arsenic. Using data gathered from Atacama Desert mummies, we discuss long-term exposure and biocultural adaptation to toxic elements. The rivers that bring life to the Atacama Desert are paradoxically laden with arsenic and other minerals that are invisible and tasteless. High intake of these toxic elements results in severe health and behavioral problems, and even death. We demonstrate that Inca colonies, from Camarones 9 site, were significantly affected by chemical contaminants in their food and water. It appears however, some modern-day Andean populations resist the elevated levels of arsenic exposure as a result of positive selection mediated via the arsenic methyltransferase enzyme and display more tolerance to high chemical doses. This article further debate the effects of natural pollution and biocultural adaptation of past populations.

A review of the bioarchaeological collections from the site Morro de Arica in northern Chile allowed the identification of two cases of human polydactyly. Both cases are from the Chinchorro culture, hunters, fishers, and gatherers with a maritime orientation who inhabited the coast of the Atacama Desert (9000–3400 BP). Additionally, the analyses of 75 rock art sites in the area, from the Formative to Late Intermediate Periods (3000–550 BP), allowed the identification of hands and feet with six digits. Given the bioarchaeological record of polydactyly, it is highly probable that the rock art images were based on real individuals with polydactyly. However, the Sr chemical signal in a juvenile with polydactyly is the same as the Sr chemical signal in the rest of the individuals buried in the same site, proving that all the individuals were born and lived on the coast. We discuss the idea that, although these anomalies could have been the result of genetic mutations, endogamy and exposition to ecotoxic environments could also be at play within the Chinchorro groups.

The Neolithic or Formative Period in the New World drastically transformed the mode of production in human societies with the domestication of plants and animals. It impacted the way of life and social relations among individuals in permanent farming villages. Moreover, the emergence of elites and social inequality fostered interpersonal and inter- and intra-group violence associated with the defense of resources, socio-economic investments, and other cultural concerns. This study evaluated violence among the first horticulturalists in the Atacama Desert in northern Chile during the Neolithic transition between 1000 BCE – 600 CE. Furthermore, it analyzed trauma caused by interpersonal violence using a sample of 194 individuals. Strontium isotopic composition was examined to determine whether violence was local or among foreign parties. Settlement patterns, weapons, and rock art also were evaluated to assess expressions of violence. Skeletal and soft tissues presented the most direct evidence for violence. About 21% (n = 40) of adult individuals, particularly men, showed trauma compatible with interpersonal violence, with 50% (n = 20) of trauma appearing fatal. The findings suggested that violence was between local groups and that social and ecological constraints likely triggered violence within local communities.

We report the chemical characterization of 13 ceramic shreds of the Cabuza phase (900–1200 CE) from northern Chile. In this decorative pottery, the red chromophore was hematite, while the black pigment was jacobsite. We also identified important secondary chemical elements, including arsenic. The discussion of all this evidence allowed us to reflect on the relationship between the individual and the environment, using the ceramics as cultural material.

Objectives Archaeological and genetic research has demonstrated that the Pacific Coast was a key route in the early colonization of South America. Research examining South American skeletons >8000 cal BP has revealed differences in cranial morphology between early and late Holocene populations, which may reflect distinct migration events and/or populations. However, genetic, cultural, and some skeletal data contradict this model. Given these discrepancies, this study examines ∼9000 years of prehistory to test the hypothesis that Early skeletons have a distinct cranial morphology from later skeletons. Materials and Methods Using 3D digital models, craniofacial landmarks, and geometric morphometric analyses, we compared Early Holocene crania (n = 4) to later Chilean samples (n = 90) frequently absent in continental assessments of craniofacial variation. PCA, Mahalanobis distances, posterior and typicality probabilities were used to examine variation. Results Two of the earliest skeletons from northern Chile show clear affinities to individuals from later sites in the same region. However, the hypothesis cannot be rejected as one Early individual from northern Chile and one individual from inland Patagonia did not always show clear affinities to coastal populations. Discussion Biological affinities among northern populations and other regions of Chile align with genetic and archaeological data, supporting cultural and biological continuity along the Pacific Coast. In Patagonia, archaeological data are in accordance with skeletal differences between the Early inland steppe individual and coastal populations. This study incorporates 3D methods and skeletal datasets not widely used in assessments of biological affinity, thus contributing to a critical body of research examining the ancient population history of western South America.

Studies of contemporary populations have demonstrated an association between decreased dietary diversity due to resource scarcity or underutilization and an increase in diseases related to poor micronutrient intake. With a reduction of dietary diversity, it is often the women and children in a population who are the first to suffer the effects of poor micronutrient status. Scurvy, a disease of prolonged vitamin C deficiency, is a micronutrient malnutrition disorder associated with resource scarcity, low dietary diversity, and/or dependence on high carbohydrate staple-foods. The aim of this paper is to assess the potential impact of nutritional transition on the prevalence of diseases of nutritional insufficiency in an archaeological sample. Here, we report palaeopathological findings from an Early Formative Period transitional site located in coastal Northern Chile (Quiani-7). The subadult cohort from this site is composed of four perinates who exhibit a number of non-specific skeletal changes suggestive of a systemic pathological condition. One of these is associated with an adult female exhibiting diagnostic skeletal lesions of scurvy. We argue that the lesions exhibited by these perinates may represent maternal transmission of vitamin C deficiency but acknowledge that there are difficulties in applying current diagnostic criteria for scurvy to individuals this young.

We discuss how the Chinchorro population of hunter-gatherers and fishermen organized their mobility patterns between the rich marine ecosystems of the Pacific coast and the extreme hyperarid core of the Atacama Desert through the application of strontium isotopes (87Sr/86Sr). We analyzed tooth enamel samples of 35 individuals from the coast (n = 28), inland oasis (n = 6), and the Andean highlands (n = 1). The Sr isotopic composition of modern and archaeological bone samples from sea mammals and land herbivores were obtained from 10 localities. Coastal human individuals show a similar Sr signal to sea mammals, confirming that the former were born and raised in the littoral zone. These results along with archaeological data suggest that the Chinchorro maintained logistic mobility along the coast. Similarly, a woman buried in the highlands (Patapatane) has a Sr signal closer to marine values, suggesting that some Chinchorro also maintained a logistic mobility linked to the Andean interior. In contrast, the Sr ratios of individuals from the inland oasis (Tiliviche) are intermediate between marine Sr values and those of local fauna. This seems to indicate that, although these Chinchorro individuals were raised in this oasis, they were part of a broad logistic mobility pattern connected with the coast.

Stable isotope analysis of mummified human hair allows the reconstruction of the recent life histories of individuals that died thousands of years ago. The objective of this study is to improve the resolution of hair palaeodietary reconstruction by sequentially analyzing 0.5 cm segments of a single hair using liquid chromatography-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (LC/IRMS). The subsistence strategies of seven individuals, spanning different cultures/periods (Chinchorro, Formative, Inca) and covering different geographic areas (coasts and hinterland) of the Atacama Desert, northern Chile, were reconstructed by analyzing δ 13 C amino acid compositions using an improved methodology that requires only 0.5 cm segments of a single hair. The amino acid δ 13 C values were supplemented with bulk carbon, nitrogen and sulfur isotope analysis performed on multiple hairs. Our results show that the archaic hunter-gatherers strongly relied on aquatic resources, as did the first transitional Formative individuals living on the coasts. Conversely, the Formative inhabitants of the nearby valley exhibit consumption of terrestrial resources in a seasonal pattern. A broader dietary spectrum made of mixed terrestrial and aquatic foods is identified in the Inca individual. The sequential analysis of 0.5 cm increments from a single hair has permitted the high-resolution reconstruction (approximately fortnightly) of the recent life history of these pre-Columbian individuals, discerning short-term nutritional changes related to agricultural cycle, multiple dietary intakes or mobility. Although bulk methods can detect changes in diet and track seasonal shifts, the variations in the carbon isotope signal can be highly attenuated with respect to the dietary intake because of the use of multiple hairs.

Biodeterioration of cultural heritage artifacts due to microbial activity presents a significant challenge to conservators and museums around the World. A collection of Chinchorro mummies recovered from the Atacama Desert (the oldest artificial mummies ever found, dating back to 5050 B.C.E.) has been stored in the Universidad de Tarapaca, northern Chile. Over the past ten years, accelerated deterioration of some mummies has been documented. Blackening and exudation of some areas of their remaining skin is causing disfigurement of the mummies and poses a threat to the collection, also for mummies in situ exposed to the natural environment. This study was designed to provide a broad analysis of the skin microbiota of Chinchorro mummies and, investigate the relationship between the presence of microbes and the recent discoloration and biodegradation of the Chinchorro mummies’ skin. Microorganisms isolated from degraded Chinchorro mummy skin samples were similar, based on ribosomal RNA analysis, to bacteria found in the human skin microbiome (predominantly, Bacillus, Staphylococcus, and Methylococcus spp.) and commonly occurring fungi (predominantly, Penicillium and Aspergillus spp.). Some of these microorganisms were able to utilize collagen and/or keratin as the sole carbon source in vitro. We determined the activity of the collagenase/gelatinase enzymes produced by these microorganisms when grown on pig skin, which was used as a surrogate for human skin. The concentration of hydroxyproline, a measure of collagenous protein degradation by the microorganisms, increased with increasing relative humidity. We demonstrated that keratinolytic and collagenolytic opportunistic microorganisms were likely responsible for the recent degradation phenomenon.

The complexity of maize domestication Maize originated in what is now central Mexico about 9000 years ago and spread throughout the Americas before European contact. Kistler et al. applied genomic analysis to ancient and extant South American maize lineages to investigate the genetic changes that accompanied domestication (see the Perspective by Zeder). The origin of modern maize cultivars likely involved a “semidomesticated” lineage that moved out of Mexico. Later improvements then occurred among multiple South American populations, including those in southwestern Amazonia. Science , this issue p. 1309 ; see also p. 1246

Interpreting early life experience in the past is of considerable interest to archaeologists, yet remains fraught with difficulty. Children are sensitive barometers of population health in general. In addition, infant feeding practices, and stresses experienced during infancy and childhood, have important effects on adult health and demographic changes. Understanding how diet and physiological stress interact is therefore of significance, but most bony indicators of stress have non‐specific etiologies that cannot be tied to events during childhood. The recent advent of incremental isotopic techniques means we now have the potential to identify periods of stress and dietary change during childhood through changes to stable carbon and nitrogen isotopic ratios during tissue formation. Being able to establish these individual weaning trajectories allows us to consider individuality in past weaning choices, giving the bioarchaeologist a more nuanced picture of the past. Here, we investigate whether combining paleopathological and isotopic data can give insight into the synergy between infant feeding and stress. We present a case study of a 5‐year‐old child from an early agricultural period archaeological site in the northern Atacama Desert, Chile. We show that, despite physiological stress likely affecting isotopic ratios in this individual, a weaning curve is visible and the interpretation of weaning behaviour is possible. In addition, we suggest that there is isotopic evidence for a micronutrient deficient weaning diet that may be correlated with bony evidence for pathology.

The past two decades have seen a proliferation in bioarchaeological literature on the identification of scurvy, a disease caused by chronic vitamin C deficiency, in ancient human remains. This condition is one of the few nutritional deficiencies that can result in diagnostic osseous lesions. Scurvy is associated with low dietary diversity and its identification in human skeletal remains can provide important contextual information on subsistence strategy, resource allocation, and human‐environmental interactions in past populations. A large and robust methodological body of work on the paleopathology of scurvy exists. However, the diagnostic criteria for this disease employed by bioarchaeologists have not always been uniform. Here we draw from previous research on the skeletal manifestations of scurvy in adult and juvenile human skeletal remains and propose a weighted diagnostic system for its identification that takes into account the pathophysiology of the disease, soft tissue anatomy, and clinical research. Using a sample of individuals from the prehistoric Atacama Desert in Northern Chile, we also provide a practical example of how diagnostic value might be assigned to skeletal lesions of the disease that have not been previously described in the literature.

The Atacama Desert is one of the most inhospitable terrestrial environments on Earth, yet the upwelling of the Humboldt Current off the coast has resulted in the presence of a rich marine biota. It is this marine environment which first enabled the human settlement of the northern Atacama Desert, and continues to form the basis of regional economies today. In this paper we explore how the desert has shaped human dietary choices throughout prehistory, using carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of human bone collagen (n = 80) to reconstruct the diets of the inhabitants of the Arica region of the northern Atacama. This area is one of the driest parts of the desert, but has been generally understudied in terms of dietary adaptation. Statistical analysis using FRUITS has allowed deconvolution of isotopic signals to create dietary reconstructions and highlight the continued importance of marine resources throughout the archaeological sequence. Location also appears to have played a role in dietary choices, with inland sites having 10–20% less calories from marine foods than coastal sites. We also highlight evidence for the increasing importance of maize consumption, coinciding with contact with highland polities. In all periods apart from the earliest Archaic, however, there is significant variability between individuals in terms of dietary resource use. We conclude that marine resource use, and broad-spectrum economies persisted throughout prehistory. We interpret these results as reflecting a deliberate choice to retain dietary diversity as a buffer against resource instability.

Este trabajo explora desde una perspectiva diacronica la dieta de las poblaciones prehispanicas de la region de Arica mediante analisis isotopicos de δ13C y δ15N, con el proposito de evaluar si hubieron cambios en los patrones dietarios desde los primeros agricultores (periodo Formativo, 3500-1500 AP) hasta la ocupacion Inka (periodo Tardio, 550-400 AP). En particular, examina el impacto del consumo del maiz en esta area, durante los periodos de mayor interaccion social con los centros politicos del altiplano. Nuestros resultados muestran una continuidad en el tiempo del consumo de recursos marinos de amplio espectro, mas que un giro hacia la dependencia del consumo del maiz. Ademas, se comparan y contrastan nuestros resultados con otros previamente publicados para otras regiones andinas, demostrando variaciones biogeograficas en el uso de los recursos, probablemente influenciados por los centros politicos Wari, Tiwanaku y luego el imperio Inka. Finalmente, el analisis isotopico incremental del colageno de la dentina en las muestras de infantes de las poblaciones de la region de Arica, indican que el maiz fue un recurso alimenticio durante la fase del destete, demostrando asi un consumo mas marcado durante la infancia que en la adultez. = This paper presents the results of isotopic analysis of prehistoric diet in the Arica region. Using δ13C and δ15N values obtained from human collagen we evaluate changes in dietary patterns from the early agricultural period (Formative 3500-1500 BP) through to Inka occupation (Late period 550-400 BP). In particular, we examine the impact of maize consumption in the area during periods of major social interaction with the political centres of the Andean highlands. Our results show the continuation of broadspectrum and marine resource use, rather than a shift to maize-reliance during prehistory. In addition, we compare and contrast our data with previously published work from other Andean regions. We demonstrate biogeographical variation in resource use, probably influenced by the political centres of Wari, Tiwanaku and later the Inka Empire. Contrastingly, results from incremental isotopic analysis of dentine collagen from the Arica infant populations indicate that maize was an important resource for infantweaning, and comprises a more obvious portion of childhood diet than that of adults.

Resumen: Se estudiaron el cálculo y las patologías dentales de 40 individuos adultos de sitios arqueológicos de la costa y valle del extremo norte de Chile: MO 1/6, PLM-4, AZ-8 y CAM-9, analizándose 10 sujetos por cada sitio. En todos ellos se encontraron microrrestos de fitolitos y almidones, exceptuando el sitio Arcaico Tardío, MO 1/6, que aunque presentó fitolitos no presentó gránulos de almidón. Estos resultados concuerdan con lo observado macroscópicamente, en donde los individuos pertenecientes al sitio MO 1/6 carecen de caries y presentan en general una mejor salud oral que aquellos individuos del Intermedio Tardío y Tardío, tanto del valle como de la costa asociados a una dieta mixta. Además, se observó una buena concordancia entre las plantas ofrendadas y las variedades detectadas en el cálculo dental de los individuos de los sitios Intermedio Tardío y Tardío.

Aims and objectives: The transition to an agricultural economy is often presumed to involve an increase in female fertility related to changes in weaning practice. In particular, the availability of staple crops as complementary foods is hypothesized to allow earlier weaning in agricultural populations. In this study, our primary aim is to explore whether this model fits the agricultural transition in the Atacama Desert using incremental isotopic analysis. A secondary aim of this study is to identify isotopic patterns relating to weaning, and assess how these may be differentiated from those relating to early life stress. Materials and methods: We use incremental isotopic analysis of dentine to examine changes in δ15N and δ13C values from infancy and childhood in sites of the Arica region (n = 30). We compare individuals from pre‐agricultural and agricultural phases to establish isotopic patterns and relate these patterns to maternal diet, weaning trajectory and physiological stress. Results We find that there is no evidence for systematic temporal or geographic variation in incremental isotopic results. Instead, results from all time periods are highly variable, with weaning completed between 1.5 and 3.5 years. Characteristics of the incremental profiles indicate that both in utero and postnatal stress were a common part of the infant experience in the Atacama. Discussion: In the Atacama Desert it appears that the arrival of agricultural crops did not result in uniform shifts in weaning behavior. Instead, infant and child diet seems to have been dictated by the broad‐spectrum diets of the mothers, perhaps as a way of mitigating the stresses of the harsh desert environment.

The ancient Andeans, who lived along the coastal region of the arid Atacama Desert in present day Chile had access to scarce freshwater via a few small rivers originating from the Andean Altiplano. Due to volcanic-derived lithium minerals and their solubility in water, the surface water in the Atacama Desert region is rich with lithium (Li); often many orders of magnitude higher than that of other rivers in the world. The goal of this study was to examine whether ancient Andean mummy individuals (n = 145) from four burial areas in northern Chile (Azapa, Camarones, Lluta and Morro) were exposed to geogenic lithium by conducting laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) on a single strand of hair per individual. The resulting concentrations for Li in mummy hair [Site, Median, Range (μg/g), n: Azapa, 0.38, 0.04–2.91 μg/g, n = 98; Morro, 0.33, 0.03–0.65 μg/g, n = 14; Camarones, 0.61, 0.07–12.8 μg/g, n = 31; Lluta, 2.9, 2.7–3.1 μg/g, n = 2] had the following order: Lluta > Camarones > Azapa > Morro. Hair-Li concentration of the Andean mummies were nearly 20 times elevated when compared to concentrations of Li in the hair of contemporary populations in other regions. Exposure to Li as revealed in hair appears to be depend in part on where ancient Andeans were buried, and generally correlates well with dissolved Li in associated rivers.

Resumen es: We explore the hypothesis that small combs coming from AZ71, PLM4, PLM6, and CAM8 archaeological sites in Northern Chile were produced specifically to re...

En este articulo discutimos las practicas mortuorias de los grupos Chinchorro durante el Arcaico Medio (7.000-5.000 a.P.) en la costa del extremo norte de Chile, a traves del estudio de 12 contextos funerarios excavados en el sitio Maestranza Chinchorro. Caracterizamos los contextos, discutimos la variabilidad de la practica mortuoria, la configuracion de entierros multiples, el tratamiento mortuorio de fetos humanos, el modo de vida y la paleopatologia del grupo. Concluimos que las practicas mortuorias son heterogeneas, ya que no todos los individuos recibieron el mismo tratamiento. La complejidad mortuoria se centro en los siete infantes del grupo, incluidos dos fetos de escasos meses de gestacion, algo bastante inusual en la prehistoria mundial. El tratamiento consistio en remover los tejidos blandos y usando como soporte los esqueletos reforzados con palos, modelar en arcilla una figura antropomorfa. Otro rasgo concluyente para este sitio fue la asociacion exclusiva entre infantes y mujeres formando entierros multiples. Por otro lado, en base a la distribucion espacial de los sitios contemporaneos a Maestranza Chinchorro y que contienen cuerpos modelados en arcilla, se propone que el poblamiento en la costa de Arica durante el Arcaico Medio, estuvo estructurado en grupos pequenos, que tenian sus campamentos res - idenciales y sus cementerios en torno a recursos claves como aguadas, rios, humedales, zonas de marisqueo, pesca y caza marina. Esta estructura de grupos a lo largo de la costa, habria derivado en una fuerte competencia y conductas altamente territoriales. We discuss Chinchorro mortuary practices during the Middle Archaic (7000-5000 B.P.) as demonstrated by 12 funerary contexts excavated at the site of Maestranza Chinchorro, northern Chile. First we describe each of the funerary contexts. Then we discuss the variability of mortuary practices, the configuration of multiple burials, the mortuary treatment of human fetuses, lifestyle, and paleopathology. We conclude that mortuary practices are heterogeneous and that not all subjects received elaborate treatment. Mortuary ritual focused on the seven infants in the group, which included two fetuses of a few months' gestation, something fairly unusual in human prehistory. Treatment consisted in the removal of all soft tissue and the use of sticks to reinforce the skeletons, upon which abundant gray clay was mounted in order to model the human figure. In contrast to the infants, just one young adult woman received complex mortuary treatment. Finally, based on the spatial distribution of contemporary burial sites, we propose that Middle Archaic communities in coastal Arica comprised small groups, including adults and children of different sexes, that settled around key resources like watering holes, rivers, wetlands, and hunting and fishing areas. This resulted in fierce intergroup competition and highly territorial behavior.

Archaic mummies from northern Chile were examined for the presence of Pediculus humanus capitis. The excellent preservation of mummies and louse nits/eggs permitted a study of the degree of head lice infestation. We studied 63 Chinchorro mummies (ca. 5000–3000 years B.P.) from the Arica-Camarones coast. An area of 2 cm × 2 cm on each mummy's head was systematically inspected for louse nits/eggs. Hairs with nits/eggs and lice were collected and analyzed using optic and scanning electronic microscopy. About 79% (50/63) of the mummies resulted positive for pediculosis, with an average of 2.1 nits/eggs/cm2 per positive individual. Microscopic analyses revealed the micromorphology of all developmental stages, including eggs/nits, nymphal instars and adults. Chinchorro people lived in small huts increasing the transmission of ectoparasites. Considering that head lice thrive in crowded conditions, their prevalence could be used as an bioindicator to assess and debate cultural behavior (e.g., degree of crowdedness and sedentism) and to study paleoepidemiology in prehistoric populations.