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International audience; Living wood in the tree performs a muscular action by generating forces at the sapwood periphery and residual strains in dead sapwood fibres. Dissymmetric force generation around the tree trunk is the motor system allowing movement, posture control and tree reshaping after accidents. Rather young trees are able to restore the verticality of their trunk after accidental rotation of the soil-root system due to wind or landslide, leading to typically curved stems shape. The very high dissymmetry of forces for the motor action is associated with the occurrence of reaction wood on one side of the inclined stem during many successive years. A method to reconstitute this biomechanical history from observations after tree felling, on either green or dry wood, is discussed. A selection of 17 trees from 15 different species (13 different families), tropical and temperate, hardwoods and softwoods, were selected and peripheral residual strains were measured in situ before felling, on 8 positions for each stem. Matched wooden rods were sawn and measured for their mechanical and physical properties in the green and dry states, allowing the estimation of tree growth stress, i.e., the force created by the living wood. It was possible to build easy-to-use conversion coefficients between the growth stress indicator (GSI), measured in situ by the single hole method, and growth strain and growth stress with the knowledge of basic density and green longitudinal elastic modulus. Maturation strain, specific modulus (as a proxy of micro-fibril angle) and longitudinal shrinkage are properties independent from basic density, whose variation among species was very large. For the whole range of compression wood, normal wood and tension wood, strong relationships between these 3 properties were observed, but together no single model, based on cell-wall microfibril angle only, could be defined. Growth forces are the product of 4 parameters: ring width, basic density, basic specific modulus and maturation strain, all of them being the result of wood formation. Thanks to the wide range of wood types and species, simple and highly significant formulas were obtained for the relationship between basic and dry density, green and dry longitudinal modulus of elasticity, basic and dry specific modulus. To estimate ring width in the green state from values in dry state, radial shrinkage needs to be measured afterwards on dry specimens. Maturation strains is less accurately linked to late measurements on dry wood, but longitudinal shrinkage offers a rather good solution for an estimation provided that the wood type (softwood, hardwood with-G layer, hardwood without G-Layer) is known.

Wood is well defined as an engineering material. However, living wood in the tree is often regarded only as a passive skeleton consisting of a sophisticated pipe system for the ascent of sap and a tree-like structure made of a complex material to resist external forces. There are two other active key roles of living wood in the field of biomechanics: (i) additive manufacturing of the whole structure by cell division and expansion, and (ii) a ‘muscle’ function of living fibres or tracheids generating forces at the sapwood periphery. The living skeleton representing most of the sapwood is a mere accumulation of dead tracheids and libriform fibres after their programmed cell death. It keeps a record of the two active roles of living wood in its structure, chemical composition, and state of residual stresses. Models and field experiments define four biomechanical traits based on stem geometry and parameters of wood properties resulting from additive manufacturing and force generation. Geometric parameters resulting from primary and secondary growth play the larger role. Passive wood properties are only secondary parameters, while dissymmetric force generation is key for movement, posture control, and tree reshaping after accidents.

International audience; The CIRAD wood collection, which was first awarded funding 80 years ago, now consists of specimens from 34,395 trees, 235 families, 2,160 generaand 8,385 species (of which 60% are represented by more than one specimen per tree) from 123 countries. Tropical species from Africa, Asia and South America make up 85% of the collection. Botanical descriptions have been made of the dominant families, genera and species in the ten geographical regions for which there are large enough collections (1,000+ specimens). These regions include nine tropical or subtropical regions and a large entity called “Northern Cold Climate” (NCC), which covers all northern hemisphere countries with a cold season (boreal, alpine temperateand Mediterranean climate). The nine tropical and subtropical regions have more or less the same dominant families but different dominant genera, while dominant families in the NCC entity differ widely. The collection is described in a specific data base: wood specimens, sections and photographs with their name and provenance. Specific Gravity (SG) has been measured in two thirds of all the specimens (6,750 species).Overall, SG values have a near normal distribution ranging from 0.04 to 1.36, with a median value of 0.72 and a 28% coefficient of variation (CV). The difference between regions in specific gravity distribution is quite small (mean values 0.66 to 0.76) with a consistently high CV (26% to 32%). Looking at the best represented families, genera and species, the mean CV for families (26%) is similar across regions and much lower for genera (18%) and species (13%). The SG range increases from family to genus to species (0.53 to 0.86, 0.46 to 0.95, 0.23 to 1.07 respectively). The different current and potential uses of the wood collection are discussed.; La xylothèque du Cirad est composée d’échantillons provenant de 34 395 arbres issus de 123 pays, appartenant à 235 familles, 2 160 genres et 8 385 espèces (dont 60 % sont représentées par plus d’un spécimen par arbre). Les espèces d’Afrique, d’Asie et d’Amérique représentent 85 % de la collection. Une description botanique des familles, genres et espèces les plus représentés a été faite dans les dix régions géographiques pour lesquelles il y a suffisamment d’échantillons (plus de 1 000). Ces régions comprennent neuf régions tropicales ou subtropicales et une grande entité appelée « Climat Froid du Nord » (NCC), qui couvre tous les pays de l’hémisphère nord ayant une saison froide marquée (climats boréal, alpin tempéré et méditerranéen). Les neuf régions tropicales et subtropicales ont plus ou moins les mêmes familles dominantes, mais différents genres dominants alors que les familles dominantes dans l’entité NCC diffèrent largement. La collection est décrite dans une base de données spécifique : échantillons de bois, sections et photographies avec leurs noms et provenance. La densité a été mesurée pour les deux tiers des spécimens (6 750 espèces). Dans l’ensemble, les valeurs de la densité ont une distribution presque normale dans une plage de 0,04 à 1,36, avec une médiane de 0,72 et un coefficient de variation (CV) de 28 %. La différence entre régions, quant à la distribution de la densité, est assez faible (valeurs moyennes variant de 0,66 à 0,76) avec un CV systématiquement élevé (26 % à 32 %). En examinant les familles, genres et espèces les mieux représentés, le CV moyen pour les familles (26 %) est similaire à celui des régions et beaucoup plus bas pour les genres (18 %) et espèces (13 %). L’éventail des densités augmente de la familleau genre et à l’espèce (0,53 à 0,86, 0,46 à 0,95, 0,23 à 1,07 respectivement). Dans l’article, les différents usages actuels et potentiels de la xylothèque sont discutés.

International audience; Timber grading is an essential step into the value process to determine wood usability for structural uses. It requires well-described characteristics obtained easily by taking non-destructive measurements to quantify reliable indicators of mechanical properties. In this paper we present an approach based on both timber scale and clear-wood scale measurements using the case of Mountain Pine (Pinus uncinata). An important experimental plan have been performed from collected trees of French and Spain Pyrenean regions allowing significantly the use of inter-correlations between measurements. The physical properties of clear wood present an important adaptation of tree growth condition with a lower modulus of elasticity (MOE) as a consequence of microstructure at cell-wall level but a conventional modulus or rupture (MOR) in bending for pines. However, the results on timber presents an important the difference between visual and machine grading for this species in view of mechanical properties considered. The results obtained also show possible improvement and limitations of current regulation in the grading mountain pine timber for structural use.

International audience; Variability in the chemical composition of 614 species is described in a database containing measurements of wood polymers (cellulose, lignin andpentosan), as well as overall extraneous components (ethanol-benzene, or hot water extracts and ash, with a focus on silica content). These measurements were taken between 1945 and 1990 using the same standard protocol. In all, 1,194 trees belonging to 614 species, 358 genera and 89 families were measured. At species level, variability (quantified by the coefficient of variation) was rather high for density (27%), much lower for lignin and cellulose (14% and 10%) and much higher for ethanol/benzene extractives, hot water extractives and ash content (81%, 60% and 76%). Considering trees with at least five different specimens, and species with at least 10 different trees, it was possible to investigate within-tree and withinspecies variability. Large differences were found between trees of a given species for extraneous components, and more than one tree should be needed per species. For density, lignin, pentosan and cellulose, the distribution of values was nearly symmetrical, with mean values of 720 kg/m3 for density, 29.1% for lignin, 15.8% for pentosan, and 42.4% for cellulose. There were clear differences between species for lignin content. For extraneous components, the distribution was very dissymmetrical, with a minority of woods rich in this component composing the high value tail. A high value for any extraneous component, even in only one tree, is sufficient to classify the species in respect of that component. Siliceous woods identified by silica bodies in anatomy have a very high silica content and only those species deserve a silica study.; La variabilité de la composition chimique de 614 espèces est décrite dans une base de données contenant des mesures de polymères du bois (cellulose, lignine et pentosane), ainsi que de l’ensemble des composants externes (extraits éthanolbenzéne ou à l’eau chaude et cendres, en particulier la teneur en silice). Ces mesures ont été effectuées entre 1945 et 1990 selon le même protocole standard. Au total, 1 194 arbres appartenant à 614 espèces, 358 genres et 89 familles ont été mesurés. La variabilité entre les espèces (quantifiée par le coefficient de variation) était plutôt élevée pour la densité (27 %), beaucoup plus faible pour la lignine et la cellulose (14 % et 10 %) et beaucoup plus élevée pour les extractibles éthanol/benzène, les extractibles à l’eau chaude et les cendres (81 %, 60 % et 76 %). En considérant des arbres avec au moins cinq spécimensdifférents et des espèces avec au moins 10 arbres différents, il a été possible d’étudier la variabilité intra-arbre et intraespèce. De grandes différences ont été constatées entre les arbres d’une espèce donnée pour les composants externes, et plus d’un arbre devrait être nécessaire par espèce. Pour la densité, la lignine, le pentosane et la cellulose, la distribution des valeurs était presque symétrique, avec des valeurs moyennes de 720 kg/m3 pour la densité, 29,1 % pour la lignine, 15,8 % pour le pentosane et 42,4 % pour la cellulose. La teneur en lignine variait nettement d’une espèce à l’autre. Pour les composants externes, la distribution était très dissymétrique, avec une minorité de bois riches en ce composant constituant la queue de valeurs élevées. Une valeur élevée pour tout composant externe, même dans un seul arbre, est suffisante pour classer l’espèce à l’égardde ce composant. Les bois siliceux identifiés par les cristaux de silice en anatomie ont une teneur très élevée en silice et seules ces espèces méritent une étude sur la silice.

Key message Wood machining is compulsory both for timber separation and the surfacing of wooden objects. The anisotropy, cellular nature and multi-scale level organisation of wood make its cutting complicated to study. During the last 50 years, most of the wood machining subjects were covered by French teams.[br/] Context: Woodcutting is a very old technology but scientific research is scarce on the subject. In the last 50 years much work on basic mechanisms as well as industrial processes has been done in France. [br/] Aims: The specific nature of wood introduces strong differences between wood and metal cutting processes. The paper focuses on French teams' contributions. [br/] Results: The basic aspects of the tool–material interaction for different basic modes in woodcutting are highlighted. In primary conversion such as sawing, veneer cutting or green wood chipping, huge progress comes from automation and the possibility of linking the process to log and product quality through new sensors. In secondary processing much has been done on the links between the cutting process, surface qualification and the properties of these surfaces for further processing, such as gluing or coating. Tool wear depends on the cutting process, timber quality, and species. Trade-offs are required in tool technology and coating technologies may improve tool life. [br/] Conclusion: A large amount of knowledge and innovation has come from 50 years of worldwide research effort, with France being particularly active in this period. The transfer of skills from metals cutting industry was often a key, but much is needed to move closer to both metal cutting sector and woodcutting skills among craftsmen.

International audience; Extractives that provide natural resistance to Bagassa guianensis Aubl. heartwood were examined. Soil-bed tests showed that the B. guianensis heartwood resistance was significantly reduced after ethyl acetate extraction, whereas methanol and especially water extractions improved the resistance. The ethyl acetate extract was submitted to a bioguided fractionation, and fractions were tested against one wood-destroying fungal strain (Pycnoporus sanguineus) and two human pathogenic fungal strains (Candida glabrata (yeast) and Trichophyton rubrum (filamentous dermatophyte)). Fraction F7, which exhibited the strongest antifungal activity, was subsequently fractionated by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Six previously described compounds were isolated. Although the two moracins, 6-O-methyl-moracin N (3) and moracin N (4) were the most active against fungal strains with MIC values between 4 and 16 μg ml−1, the isolated compounds showed less or equivalent antifungal activity than the initial fraction. Possible synergism between compounds 3 and 4 and other secondary metabolites have been hypothesized. Our study demonstrated that this extract as a whole might be used as a wood preservation or antimycotic product.

International audience; The anisotropy of vibrational properties influences the acoustic behaviour of wooden pieces and their dependence on grain angle (GA). As most pieces of wood include some GA, either for technological reasons or due to grain deviations inside trunks, predicting its repercussions would be useful. This paper aims at evaluating the variability in the anisotropy of wood vibrational properties and analysing resulting trends as a function of orientation. GA dependence is described by a model based on transformation formulas applied to complex compliances, and literature data on anisotropic vibrational properties are reviewed. Ranges of variability, as well as representative sets of viscoelastic anisotropic parameters, are defined for mean hardwoods and softwoods and for contrasted wood types. GA-dependence calculations are in close agreement with published experimental results and allow comparing the sensitivity of different woods to GA. Calculated trends in damping coefficient (tanδ) and in specific modulus of elasticity (E′/ρ) allow reconstructing the general tanδ-E′/ρ statistical relationships previously reported. Trends for woods with different mechanical parameters merge into a single curve if anisotropic ratios (both elastic and of damping) are correlated between them, and with axial properties, as is indicated by the collected data. On the other hand, varying damping coefficient independently results in parallel curves, which coincide with observations on chemically modified woods, either "artificially", or by natural extractives.

International audience; Tension wood of Laetia procera (Poepp.) Eichl. (Flacourtiaceae), a neo-tropical forest species, shows a peculiar secondary wall structure, with an alternance of thick and thin layers, while opposite wood of this species has a typical secondary wall structure (S1 + S2 + S3). Samples for the study of microstructural properties were collected upon the estimation of growth stresses in the living tree, in order to analyze the correlation of the former with the latter. Investigation using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and UV microspectrophotometry allowed the description of the anatomy, ultra-structure and chemistry of this peculiar polylaminate secondary wall. In the thick layers, cellulose microfibril angle is very low (i.e., microfibril orientation is close to fibre axis) and cellulose microfibrils are well organized and parallel to each other. In the thin layers, microfibrils (only observable in the inner layer) are less organized and are oriented with a large angle relative to the axis of the cell. Thick layers are lightly lignified although thin layers show a higher content of lignin, close to that of opposite wood secondary wall. The more the wood was under tensile stress, the less the secondary wall was lignified, and lower the syringyl on guaiacyl lignin units' ratio was. The innermost layer of the secondary wall looks like a typical S3 layer with large microfibril angle and lignin occurrence. The interest of this kind of structure for the understanding of stress generation is discussed.

In French Guiana, the leaf and cambium phenologies should not be considered only as exogenous-driven processes, as the dry season, but also as endogenous-driven, as tree development stage. Abstract Studies of the periodicity of wood formation provide essential data on tree age and on factors that control tree growth. The aim of this work was to investigate cambial phenology and its relation with leaf phenology and climatic seasonality in two briefly deciduous tropical rainforest species belonging to the genus Parkia. Wood microcores were collected every 15 days from April 2009 to February 2012 from five trees of each species. The microcores were stained with cresyl violet acetate to facilitate counting the number of cells in the cambial zone, in the radial enlargement zone and wall-thickening zone. At the same time, we observed leaf shedding pattern in the crown of the same trees. In both species, cambial activity was significantly reduced during the leafless period. In P. nitida, these two concomitant events were observed during the dry season whereas in P. velutina they can occur anytime in the year with no apparent link with seasonality. In conclusion, the period of reduced cambial activity in some tropical rainforest trees may be independent of rainfall seasonality and not necessarily follow an annual cycle. It appears that leaf phenology is a good proxy to estimate cambial activity.

International audience; The goal of this article is to understand the contemporary transformations of indigenous territories in relation to several factors, including urbanisation, population growth, economic development and conservation policies. Using socio-economic, governance and land use data, we explain the current territorial reorganisations of the Wayãpi and Teko indigenous peoples. We demonstrate the existence of an emerging ‘multi-sited’ land use system that allows these indigenous peoples to benefit from resources in both urban and forest areas and ensures sovereignty over the territory. We emphasise the role of the delimitation of protected areas in catalysing identity claims and the process of land use reformulation.

Shrinkage of green cane (Arundo donax L.) was measured during air-drying at room temperature. The cane began to shrink at 150% moisture content due to a remarkable collapse of parenchyma cells. The collapse recovered after boiling in water, but more serious collapse (recollapse) was induced by the following drying. On the other hand, the collapse recovered almost completely after steaming with saturated water vapor at 92°-96°C without recollapse. By comparing the thickness of cane specimens before and after steaming, the degree of cell collapse remaining in dry cane was evaluated. When the green cane was frozen prior to drying, the degree of collapse was reduced whereas the drying rate remained unchanged. The effect of prefreezing was interpreted as the generation of air bubbles in the cell lumen which hinder the effective loading of liquid tension on the cell wall. Even when the cane was carefully dried using a conventional method used by reed manufacturers, the degree of collapse was very large and it increased with elevating internode position.

Generally speaking, charcoal analysis is based on identifying and counting charcoal fragments in order to calculate the relative variations in taxa frequency. All post-depositional processes are likely to induce fragmentation of the anthracological material, raising the question of the representativeness of taxa. Based on an innovative experimental approach combining both charcoal analysis and biomechanics, this paper explores how the mechanical properties of charcoal can influence the fragmentation and the quantification of species in anthracological assemblages. We carried out standardized laboratory compression tests on 302 samples issued from 10 taxa, charred at three different temperatures, in order to characterize the mechanical properties of common species in temperate and Mediterranean Europe. Our results highlight the differential responses of the tested species in terms of resistance to compression and fragmentation, two processes which do not appear to be correlated. Charcoal is very resistant to pressure (up to 22.5 MPa). Our results show that significant fragmentation differences exist between taxa. The total number of fragments after compression is largely dependent on the species, regardless of the charring temperature. However, this interspecific variability is more significant for small fragments [1–2 mm], than for larger fragments [2–4 mm] and >4 mm, with the exception of Quercus, which displays differential reactions to compression. Finally, a multifactorial analysis brings to light the impact of the physical and anatomical characteristics of the different species on charcoal fragmentation.

National audience

International audience; Reaction wood originates from cambial activity which will adjust cell division activity, cell wall structure and properties, so that the resulting growth event will be the appropriate response to endogenous and environmental stimuli. When addressing the question of the induction of reaction woodformation, the physical parameters inducing reaction wood are first presented leading to discuss the importance of gravisensing versus proprioception (sensing of the local curvature of the stem) in this process. Molecular candidates for the perception of cellular deformation that ishypothesized to occur in a gravistimulated stem are located at CPMCW (cytoskeleton-plasma membrane-cell wall) continuum. These candidates would mediate intracellular signalling. Insights from global approaches (e.g. transcriptome and proteome analyses) performed on tilted trees suggest calcium, reactive oxygen species and phosphatidy linositol signalling in the gravitropism sensing network. It has been unambiguously shown that several of the aux/IAA gene family mediators of auxin signal transduction pathway change on induction of tension wood formation. Gibberellins and ethylene seem also to be involved in reaction wood formation.The role of the different plant hormones in upstream primary response to reaction wood sensing or alternatively in the transmission of the signal from the perception to the reaction wood forming cells is discussed.

The book is an essential reference source on reaction wood for wood scientists and technologists, plant biologists, silviculturists, forest ecologists, and anyone involved in the growing of trees and the processing of wood. It brings together our current understanding of all aspects of reaction wood, and is the first book to compare and discuss both compression wood and tension wood. Trees produce reaction wood to maintain the vertical orientation of their stems and the optimum angle of each branch. They achieve this by laying down fibre cell walls in which differences in physical and chemical structure from those of normal fibres are expressed as differential stresses across the stem or branch. This process, while of obvious value for the survival of the tree, causes serious problems for the utilisation of timber. Timber derived from trees containing significant amounts of reaction wood is subject to dimensional instability on drying, causing distortion and splitting. It is also difficult to work as timber, and for the pulp and paper industry the cost of removing the increased amount of lignin in compression wood is substantial. This has both practical and economic consequences for industry. Understanding the factors controlling reaction wood formation and its effect on wood structure is therefore fundamental to our understanding of the adaptation of trees to their environment and to the sustainable use of wood.

The color of 97 species of wood specimens from French Guiana was measured on their radial and tangential surfaces with a colorimeter. We obtained the tristimulus values of X, Y, and Z of the 10' standard observer under the illuminant of D,,, and the values of the CIELAB color system, L*, a*, b*, C*, and h. When the lightness index (L*) was 54, a* and C* showed negative correlations against L*. These results imply that wood color should be discussed by separating wood specimens into the highand low-lightness groups. A good positive correlation was found between the L* and h throughout the whole range of L*. It is thought that the value of h can be an important index, as can L*, for comparing of wood color because h shows a simple relation with L*.

International audience; Aims: In European Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) large growth stresses lead to severe log end splitting that devaluate beech timber. Our study aimed at detecting relationships between growth stress and some morphology parameters in trees. Methods: Growth stress indicators were recorded for 440 mature trees in 9 stands from 5 European countries, together with morphology parameters. Results: Most trees displayed an uneven distribution of growth stress around the trunk. Moreover, growth stress intensity varied largely between individual trees. Geometry of the trunk was a poor predictor of growth stress intensity. Crown asymmetry resulted in a larger stress dissymmetry within trees. Trunk inclination was not correlated to mean or tension stress, contrary to what is usually found in younger trees. In the case of small inclination, growth stress was close to expected from biomechanics of restoring verticality. Trees exhibiting a larger inclination probably evolved a different mechanical solution: a rather large crown, lower tree slenderness and a sufficient asymmetry in growth stress as to prevent a higher inclination due to growth. Conclusion: A large slenderness is the best accurate predictor of a large growth stress, although variations in the ratio Height/DBH explained only 10% of the variability of growth stress. A large crown surface was the best predictor of a low level of growth stress. A large spacing between trees seems a good solution to lower the risk of growth stress in mature Beech.

This study aims at better understanding the respective influences of specific gravity (γ), microfibril angle (MFA), and cell wall matrix polymers on viscoelastic vibrational properties of wood in the axial direction. The wide variations of properties between normal wood (NW) and compression wood (CW) are in focus. Three young bent trees (Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris and Pinus pinaster), which recovered verticality, were sampled. Several observed differences between NW and CW were highly significant in terms of anatomical, physical (γ, shrinkage, CIELab colorimetry), mechanical (compressive strength), and vibrational properties. The specific dynamic modulus of elasticity (E′/γ) decreases with increasing MFA, and Young’s modulus (E′) can be satisfactorily explained by γ and MFA. Apparently, the type of the cell wall polymer matrix is not influential in this regard. The damping coefficient (tanδ) does not depend solely on the MFA of NW and CW. The tanδ – E′/γ relationship evidences that, at equivalent E′/γ, the tanδ of CW is approximately 34% lower than that of NW. This observation is ascribed to the more condensed nature of CW lignins, and this is discussed in the context of previous findings in other hygrothermal and time/frequency domains. It is proposed that the lignin structure and the amount and type of extractives, which are both different in various species, are partly responsible for taxonomy-related damping characteristics.

International audience; A feasibility study of glulam was carried out in French Guiana using local wood species. The aim was to determine gluing parameters affording satisfactory behaviour to manufactured glulam in a tropical climate. Three abundant wood species, with special properties, were selected for the study and Resorcinol-Phenol-Formaldehyde resin was used for bonding. Three industrial parameters were considered: adhesive spread rate, closed assembly time and gluing pressure. Delamination and shearing tests were carried outin accordance with European Standards. The tests revealed the influence of wood properties and manufacturing parameters on joint resistance. In fact, the results showed that specific gravity and the shrinkage coefficientgreatly influenced the gluing step. Indeed, wood with a medium specific gravity needed more adhesive and more pressure than wood with a high specific gravity. In addition, planning and lamella thicknesswere found to affect glue joint resistance.

National audience

Context : Increased knowledge on diversity in wood properties would have implications both for fundamental research and for promoting a diversification of uses as material. Aims : The objective is to contribute to overcoming the critical lack of data on the diversity of wood dynamic mechanical/viscoelastic vibrational properties by testing lesser known species and categorising sources of variability. Methods : Air-dry axial specific dynamic modulus of elasticity (E′/γ) and damping coefficient (tanδ) were measured on a wide sampling (1,792 specimens) of 98 wood types from 79 species. An experimental device and protocol was designed for conducting systematic (i.e. rapid and reproducible) characterisations. Results : Diversity at the specimens' level corroborates the "standard” relationship between tanδ and E′/γ, which is discussed in terms of orientation of wood elements and of chemical composition. Diversity at the species level is expressed on the basis of results for normal heartwood, with specific gravity (γ) ranging from 0.2 to 1.3. Axial E′/γ ranges from 9 to 32GPa and tanδ from 4 × 10−3 to 19 × 10−3. Properties distribution follows a continuum, but with group characteristics. The lowest values of tanδ are only found in certain tropical hardwoods. Results can also suggest alternative species for musical instruments making. Conclusion : The variations in specific gravity, in stiffness or in "viscosity” appear to be predominantly linked to different levels of diversity: between species or between wood types (reaction wood or taxonomy-related differences in heartwood extractives)

The radial trends of vibrational properties, represented by the specifi c dynamic modulus (E /?) and damping coeffi cient (tan ?), were investigated for three tropical rainforest hardwood species (Simarouba amara, Carapa procera, and Symphonia globulifera) using free-free fl exural vibration tests. The microfi bril angle (MFA) was estimated using X-ray diffraction. Consistent patterns of radial variations were observed for all studied properties. E /? was found to decrease from pith to bark, which was strongly related to the increasing pith-bark trend of MFA. The variation of tan ? along the radius could be partly explained by MFA and partly by the gradient of extractives due to heartwood formation. The coupling effect of MFA and extractives could be separated through analysis of the log(tan ?) versus log(E /?) diagram. For the species studied, the extractive content putatively associated with heartwood formation generally tends to decrease the wood damping coeffi cient. However, this weakening effect of extractives was not observed for the inner part of the heartwood, suggesting that the mechanical action of extractives was reduced during their chemical ageing.

International audience; Extractives can affect vibrational properties tanδ (damping coefficient) and E'/ρ (specific Young's modulus) but this is highly dependent on species, compounds, and cellular locations. This paper investigates such effects for African Padauk (Pterocarpus soyauxii Taub.), a tropical hardwood with high extractives content and a preferred material for xylophones. 5 groups of 26 heartwood specimens with large, yet comparable, ranges in vibrational properties were extracted in different solvents. Changes in vibrational properties were set against yields of extracts and evaluation of their cellular location. Methanol (ME) reached most of compounds (13%), located about half in lumen and half in cell-wall. Water solubility was extremely low. tanδ and E'/ρ were very strongly related (R2≥0.93), but native wood had abnormally low values of tanδ, while extraction shifted this relation towards higher tanδ values. ME extracted heartwood became in agreement with the average of many species, and close to sapwood. Extractions increased tanδ as much as 60%, irrespective of minute moisture changes or of initial properties. Apparent E'/ρ was barely changed (+2% to -4%) but, after correcting the mass contribution of extracts, was in fact slightly reduced (down to -10% for high E'/ρ), and increasingly so for specimens with low initial values of E'/ρ.

International audience; The viscoelastic properties of the cell wall of the tropic hardwood Carapa procera are investigated by means of nanoindentation tests. Three types of nanoindentation tests are undertaken: creep, continuous stiffness measurement (CSM) and nanoscale dynamic mechanical analysis (Nano-DMA), corresponding to the increased loading rate and so the response of wood cell wall to the loading in a relatively large time scale. It is found that the creep rate is dependent on the applied stress and the relation can be described by the rule of power law. Regarding the dynamic properties (i.e., storage modulus and damping coefficient) in the frequency range of 10-240 Hz, it is shown that the storage modulus increases monotonically, while the damping coefficient decreases. By using the traditional dynamic mechanical thermal analysis as a reference method, the phase transition behavior of wood cell wall can be successfully characterized by the Nano-DMA in a large frequency scale. A dependence of the storage modulus and damping coefficient on the penetration depth is quantified by the CSM tests.

La recouvrance hygrothermique du bois vert (RHT) est a l'origine de la fissuration a coeur induite par l'etuvage des grumes. Elle a ete mesuree a 801C dans les trois directions principales sur des echantillons obtenus par 2 modes de debit complementaires a partir de rondelles a faces paralleles de châtaignier (Castanea sativa Mill) et d'epicea (Picea abies Karst). La deformation obtenue est de l'ordre de -0,1% dans la direction radiale et de + ou -0,1% dans la direction longitudinale. Dans la direction tangentielle, elle vaut 0,3 a 0,4% pour l'epicea, sans influence de la position radiale, alors que chez le châtaignier elle varie de 0,4% pres de la peripherie a 0,6% vers le coeur ; elle est plus elevee dans le bois de tension et plus faible dans le bois oppose, et a chute de moitie a la suite d'un stockage des echantillons huit mois dans l'eau. Pour finir on propose une approche numerique de la fissuration a coeur provoquee par les contraintes de croissance et l'etuvage, ou la progression des fentes est simulee par l'ouverture d'un trou central permettant de maintenir les contraintes transverses compatibles avec des criteres de rupture. (Resume d'auteur)

Grain deviations and high extractives content are common features of many tropical woods. This study aimed at clarifying their respective impact on vibrational properties, referring to African Padauk (Pterocarpus soyauxii Taub.), a species selected for its interlocked grain, high extractives content and uses in xylophones. Specimens were cut parallel to the trunk axis (L), and local variations in grain angle (GA), microfibril angle (MFA), specific Young’s modulus (E′ L /ρ, where ρ stands for the density) and damping coefficient (tanδL) were measured. GA dependence was analysed by a mechanical model which allowed to identify the specific Young’s modulus (E′3/ρ) and shear modulus (G′/ρ) along the grain (3) as well as their corresponding damping coefficients (tanδ3, tanδG). This analysis was done for native and then for extracted wood. Interlocked grain resulted in 0–25° GA and in variations of a factor 2 in E′L/ρ and tanδL. Along the grain, Padauk wood was characterized, when compared to typical hardwoods, by a somewhat lower E′3/ρ and elastic anisotropy (E′/G′), due to a wide microfibril angle plus a small weight effect of extracts, and a very low tanδ3 and moderate damping anisotropy (tanδG/tanδ3). Extraction affected mechanical parameters in the order: tanδ3 ≈ tanδG > G′/ρ > > E′3/ρ. That is, extractives’ effects were nearly isotropic on damping but clearly anisotropic on storage moduli.

International audience; A comparative study of 9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole (norharmane) and 1-methyl-9H-pyrido[3,4-b]indole (harmane) as inhibitors for C38 steel corrosion in 1 M HCl solution at 25 °C was carried out. Potentiodynamic polarization and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) techniques were applied to study the metal corrosion behavior in the absence and presence of different concentrations of these inhibitors. The OCP as a function of time were also established. Cathodic and anodic polarization curves show that norharmane and harmane are a mixed-type inhibitors. Adsorption of indole derivatives on the C38 steel surface, in 1 M HCl solution, follows the Langmuir adsorption isotherm model. The ΔGads values were calculated and discussed. The potential of zero charge (PZC) of the C38 steel in inhibited solution was studied by the EIS method, and a mechanism for the adsorption process was proposed. Raman spectroscopy confirmed that indole molecules strongly adsorbed onto the steel surface. The electronic properties of indole derivates, obtained using the AM1 semi-empirical quantum chemical approach, were correlated with their experimental efficiencies using the linear resistance model (LR).

COST Action E35 : Fracture mechanics and micromechanics of wood and wood composites with regard to wood machining; The data available in the literature concerning wood cutting forces permits to build models or to simulate the main wood machining processes ( milling, sawing, peeling, etc.). This approach contributes to a better understanding of formation of wood surfaces and chips and the data may be helpful to optimise cutting geometry, reduce tool wear, improve tool material, and to size tool-machines. The models may also be useful for industrial application in two ways: ( 1) providing data to optimise the settings for a given operation ( batch approach), and ( 2) building predictive models that could be the basis of an online control system for the machining processes ( interactive approach). A prerequisite for this is that numerous machining tests on different wood materials are performed based on experiences with different kind of tools and experimental devices. With a focus on potential industrial applications, the emphasis of this review was on the wood peeling process, which is a very demanding special case of wood cutting. Although not so many industrial machines are equipped with expensive force sensors, there is a lot of high quality information available about cutting forces which may be useful to improve the scientific or technological knowledge in wood machining. Alternative parameters, such as vibration or sound measurements, appear to be promising substitutes in the praxis, particularly to feed online control systems of any wood cutting process.

Few studies have been conducted about relation between cellulose para-meters and biomechanical properties of wood in tropical angiosperms species. For this purpose, on 13 trees from 3 species of French Guyana tropical rainforest in a clear active process of restoring verticality, i) growth strains were measured in situ in order to determine the occurrence of tension wood within samples and ii) cellulose structural parameters were estimated on all the samples using X-ray diffraction method. Crystallite size was estimated from the full-width at half-maximum of the Miller index (002) arc diffraction and angle T was measured following Cave’s method. Relationships between these parameters and growth stresses were good and the variations between normal and tension wood were significant, i.e. a lower angle T and a larger crystallite size in tension wood. In order to have a good estimation of the microfibril angle in the main layer of the secondary wall for each species, an experimental calibration was done between angle T and microfibril angle observed with scanning electron microscopy.

On 10 trees from 10 species of French Guyana tropical rainforest in a clear active process of restoring verticality growth strains were measured in situ in order to determine the occurrence of tension wood within samples. Wood specimens were cut in the vicinity of the growth strains measurements in order to measure some mechanical and physical properties. As suspected, tensile growth strains was very much higher in tension wood zone, because longitudinal modulus of elasticity was slightly higher. Longitudinal shrinkage was also much higher in tension wood than in opposite wood., Des mesures de contraintes de croissance ont été réalisées sur 10 arbres en cours de redressement actif appartenant à 10 espèces de la forêt tropicale humide de Guyane Française afin de s'assurer de la présence de bois de tension. Des échantillons de bois, prélevés au voisinage des mesures de contraintes de croissance, ont permis de mesurer un certains nombres de propriétés physiques et mécaniques. Comme présumé les contraintes de croissance sont beaucoup plus élevées au niveau du secteur de bois de tension, car le module d'élasticité est légèrement plus élevé. Le retrait longitudinal est aussi plus élevé dans le bois de tension que dans le bois opposé.

Les parametres de couleur du hetre europeen ont ete mesures a l'aide du systeme CIELab. Cent trois grumes obtenues a partir de 87 arbres abattus dans 9 sites ont ete debitees en quartiers afin de determiner les variations radiales des parametres de couleur. Des effets site et arbre sur la couleur ont ete observes. Des types avec ou sans coeur rouge ont ete definis. En exceptant le coeur rouge on conserve un effet hautement significatif du site et de l'arbre. Les variations radiales et axiales etaient faibles, excepte tres pres de la moelle ou dans le coeur rouge, suggerant la possibilite d'une selection precoce sur des criteres de couleur en peripherie. Le coeur rouge est plus fonce, plus rouge et plus jaune que le bois normal peripherique. (Resume d'auteur)

Accepted as original article in Journal of Wood Science (6th may 2004); The detachment of gelatinous layer (G-layer), often observed on microtome cross sections, leads some authors believe that G-layer cannot act as the driving force of longitudinal shrinkage in tension wood. The aim of this study was to observe the detachment of G-layer along fibres. Green wood block was cut transversely into two samples. One sample was kept in water and the other oven-dried. One face being common to both samples, detachment of G-layer has been studied on the same fibres. Observations have been performed after blocking deformation by embedding. It reveals that the detachment of G-layer is a cutting effect produced during the first making of the transverse face of the wood block to be embedded. After 100 µm far from this primary surface of the sample no detachment can be observed. Drying shrinkage does not affect or little this detachment. The result seems to explain well why the detachment of G-layer occurs during sectioning using a conventional sliding microtomy. These observations prove the adhesion of G-layer in massive wood and confirm the active role of G-layer in tension wood properties.

Longitudinal four-point creep bending tests were performed on small clear-wood spruce specimens having various microfibrillar angles. Cell-wall compliance was deduced from macroscopic data by accounting for porosity. Time-dependent compliance was converted into complex compliance and rigidity using the value and the slope of the compliance versus logarithm of time. Complex rigidity plots of all specimens, for the time range 103–106 s, could be superimposed by a horizontal shift depending on the microfibrillar angle. The shape of complex trajectories allowed a decomposition of the cell-wall relaxation modulus as the sum of an elastic contribution function of the microfibrillar angle and a time-dependent term unrelated to it, and suggested a discussion on the contribution of the various cell-wall layers to the observed relaxation process. To cite this article: J. Gril et al., C. R. Biologies 327 (2004).

The influence of temperature on transverse mechanical properties of 10 tropical species in green condition was studied in radial compression (0 to 99 °C), transverse shear with longitudinal-radial shearing plane and rupture of the longitudinal-tangential plane (20 to 80 °C). Basic density ranged from 0.21 to 0.91 g cm -3. Load-displacement curves were characterised by initial rigidity, yield stress, yield strain and strain energy at 20% strain level. The relation between each criterion and basic density was expressed by a power law. The dependency on temperature evidenced a sharp glassy transition, except for the fracture energy only slightly influenced by temperature. An empirical model allowed evaluating a transition temperature between 51 and 69 °C, depending on the species and the criterion, which was attributed to lignin. Detailed analysis of the apparent modulus in radial compression suggested that complex relaxation phenomena occur around 10 °C and that the rubbery state is not fully reached at 80 °C., L'influence de la température sur les propriétés mécaniques transverses du bois vert de 10 essences tropicales a été étudiée. Trois types d'essais ont été réalisés : compression radiale (entre 0 et 99 °C), cisaillement transverse suivant le plan longitudinal-radial et rupture dans le plan longitudinal-tangentiel (entre 20 et 80 °C). L'infradensité des essences est comprise entre 0,21 et 0,91 g cm -3. Les courbes force-déplacement ont été caractérisées par la rigidité initiale, la contrainte de flambement, la déformation de flambement et l'énergie de déformation pour 20 % de déformation. La relation entre chaque critère et l'infradensité est exprimée par une loi puissance. La dépendance des critères avec la température met en évidence une transition vitreuse très prononcée, excepté pour l'énergie de rupture peu influencée par la température. Un modèle empirique permet d'évaluer une température de transition entre 51 et 69 °C, selon les essences et les critères. Ce phénomène est expliqué par la transition vitreuse des lignines. Une analyse détaillée du module radial apparent en compression suggère qu'un phénomène de relaxation complexe a lieu autour de 10 °C et que l'état caoutchoutique n'est pas complètement atteint à 80 °C.

Atomic Force Microscopy in force modulation mode was used to study the elastic properties of the different fibre wall layers of the tension wood of holm oak and normal wood of boco. The method is based on the measurement of the resonance frequency of the microscope lever in contact with the sampie. This frequency is related to the reduced Young modulus E* = E/(I-v2) of the material, supposed to be isotropie. 'Elastic' images of the cell are obtained simultaneously with the topographie images, which allows the observation of the mechanical properties of the cells at a nanometric scale. Layers G, S1, S2 and ML can clearly be distinguished. By comparison with known materials an estimation of the absolute modulus is given in the range 5-20 GPa, but should be considered with caution, because the inherent anisotropy of the materials has not been taken into account.

Too often chestnut wood (Castanea sativaMill.) becomes economically uninteresting because of the high risk of ring shake to which this species is prone. For more than twenty years chestnut ring shake has been the subject of studies undertaken in an effort to understand its underlying causes and mechanisms. Since not all aspects of the phenomenon have been sufficiently studied at the present time, ring shake has not yet been completely elucidated. However, it is possible to outline a general framework of the phenomenon and advance preliminary ideas on the causes that contribute to the development of this type of fracture. This article summarises the current state of knowledge, discusses the possible causes and proposes measures to reduce the risk of ring shake occurrence in chestnut . ring shake / Castanea sativa Mill. / wood / residual stresses / mechanical strength

The main aspects of wood mechanics are approached through the role played by wood as the building material of the tree. The main concepts used by nature: progressive setting up of tree weight and architecture, multifunctional role of wood and adaptability to hazard and long-term evolution, are clarified together with their consequence on the multilayered, anisotropic nature of wood. The technological choices of the plant world as the cellular structure, the use of composite with oriented fibres and hydro-carbonated polymers, as well as the systematic prestressing of every new layer, bear obvious consequences on the type of mechanical behaviour of wood. The local control of the level of prestressing through minor modifications of the cell-wall biosynthesis allows the tree to adapt to conditions of light exploration that will evolve according to time and risk occurrence. This analysis of wood genesis process permits in return to improve our understanding of the mechanical behaviour of the material in relation with the parameters of the microstructure.

Pour comprendre le comportement macroscopique du bois, il est interessant de connaitre ses proprietes a l'echelle microscopique. Pour cela, diverses techniques d'imagerie nous donnent des informations sur la structure geometrique en deux ou trois dimensions, la composition chimique, la densite ainsi que la presence de reseaux cristallins et leurs orientations. Les proprietes mecaniques sont souvent estimees, soit par des essais sur fibre isolee, soit par modelisation a partir des donnees de rigidite des differents constituants pris hors contexte cellulaire. Aujourd'hui, seules les techniques de nano-indentation permettent une estimation des proprietes mecaniques locales in situ, en un nombre limite de point de mesure. La microscopie acoustique permet la caracterisation des rigidites au niveau local pour des materiaux a forte rigidite (metaux, verres, ceramiques...). L'utilisation de cet outil pour des materiaux beaucoup moins rigides comme le bois, necessite la mise au point d'une procedure experimentale specifique. Les essais realises sur un microscope acoustique en reflexion ont montre que pour des images a fort grossissement, l'utilisation de coupes minces (~ 5 µm) apres inclusion dans la resine avec respectivement l'eau ou une solution d'iodure de potassium comme liquide de couplage a 600 MHz ou a 1 GHz donnait des resultats permettant d'envisager une analyse des rigidites locales a partir des niveaux de gris de l'image acoustique. ––––– To understand wood macroscopic behaviour, it is useful to know its properties at the microscopic level. For this, several imaging techniques can provide information about the geometrical structure in 2 or 3 dimensions, chemical composition, density, crystal lattice and crystal orientation. Wood mechanical properties are determined either by testing isolated fibre, or trough modelling based on stiffness data of the various cell wall components obtained outside the cellular context. Only nanoindentations methods can be used to estimate in situ mechanical properties on a limited number of sites. On the other hand, this can be done on high stiffness materials (metals, glasses, ceramics...) by using acoustic microscopy. To apply this technique to wood, experimental procedure should be assessed. Trials on a scanning acoustic microscope show that for high resolution images, thin slices (~ 5 µm) after resin inclusion with water or potassium iodure as coupling liquid respectively at 600 MHz or 1 GHz give good results giving way to quantitative measurement of cell wall stiffness by image analysis.

Elections in Africa is the first volume of a series of election data handbooks published by OUP; it covers all the 53 states in Africa. Elections have always been an integral part of post‐independence African politics and have assumed the utmost importance in the course of recent democratization processes. However, comparative research on political development in Africa lacks reliable electoral data. Elections in Africa fills this gap. Following the overall structure of the series, an initial comparative introduction on elections and electoral systems is followed by chapters on each state of the region. These contributions examine the evolution of institutional and electoral arrangements from independence to the present (1999), and provide systematic surveys of the up‐to‐date electoral provisions and their historical development. Exhaustive statistics on national elections (presidential, parliamentary, and constitutional assembly), referendums and coups d’état are included within each chapter; these cover electoral bodies and voting, electoral participation of parties and alliances, vote distribution, parliamentary composition, and power holders. The data are presented in the same systematic manner for all countries in order to provide electoral statistics in line with internationally established standards of documentation, so that the data can be easily compared. The book, therefore, provides a definitive and comprehensive set of data on elections in order to facilitate comparative research. Together with the other books of this series, Elections in Africa is a highly reliable resource for historical and cross‐national comparisons of elections and electoral systems worldwide.

Le bois des arbres sur pied est soumis a des efforts internes permanents, appeles contraintes «de croissance», resultant de deformations de maturation non exprimees lors de la differenciation du bois dans l'arbre. Le but de notre programme de recherches «Architecture, Structure, Mecanique de l'arbre» est de mettre en evidence les relations entre ces deformations de maturation, la structure anatomique du bois et la morphogenese de l'arbre, dans l'objectif de modeliser les contraintes supportees par le bois et d'estimer les risques de fentes et de deformations a la transformation. Une synthese des resultats en cours concernant les deformations longitudinales residuelles mesurees a la surface, qui estiment les deformations de maturation, est presentee a propos de plusieurs individus ou populations [...]

International audience

Mecanique de l'arbre et mecanique du bois. Relation entre la recouvrance hygrothermique du bois vert et le processus de maturation. Les contraintes de croissance peuvent etre abordees du double point de vue de la tenue mecanique des arbres et de l'histoire du chargement applique sur le materiau jusqu'a l'abattage de l'arbre. Elles trouvent leur origine dans la maturation du bois qui provoque a la fois la rigidification et l'expansion de la matiere constitutive des parois. Les deformations bloquees sont partiellement relâchees lorsque des echantillons sont extraits de l'arbre ; elles le sont plus completement si ceux-ci sont chauffes a l'etat vert au-dessus de la temperature de transition de la lignine. On a emis l'hypothese d'une similarite des conditions rheologiques de cette recouvrance hygrothermique avec celles qui prevalent lors de la maturation, caracterisee par la lignification de la paroi secondaire des cellules. Une analogie rheologique representant le comportement du bois au cours de sa formation a ete proposee dans le but d'appuyer cette hypothese et d'en deduire des informations sur la rigidite moyenne de maturation. (Resume d'auteur)

Erratum to: Wood Sci Technol (2010) 44:355–367DOI:10.1007/s00226-010-0348-0Due to a processing error the caption of Fig. 1 and the third sentence of theconclusion were incorrect. The description of a system of axis [1, 2, 3] was wronglyreplaced by (Akitsu et al. 1993; Aramaki et al. 2007; Bodig and Jayne 1982). Thecorrected caption and the sentence are given below.Fig. 1 Schematic view of the sampling procedure and of the systems of axis relatedto the trunk and specimens [R, T, L] and to the grain direction [1, 2, 3].Conclusion.(…) Mechanical parameters in the fibre-related system of axis [1, 2, 3]were identified for untreated and extracted Padauk wood. (…)