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Companies have started asking a question themselves everyday: Do we have a purpose for our business or we should stickwith the traditional marketing. Generations have totally changed and their commercial lives differ entirely from the previous ones; they are socially responsible and pour out their minds, hearts and spirits in it. Their search for value contributes more to the Cause related Marketing. Research suggests outcomes of CRM campaigns are helpful for firms as well as for the causes. Causes, receive greater funding and publicity with which the cause can be ended or reduced.With regard to firms it enhances corporate image and increase sales, but effects may vary depending on the audience.. In this light, this paper investigates the significance of gender in the structural elements of Cause Related Marketing.This study surveyed the various dimensions of Cause Related Marketing in the union territory of Puducherry considering Generation Z as their respondents.The researcher generated primary data using questionnaire as the research instrument. Student t test was used to test the hypothesis.The results indicate that gender does influence with few of the structural elements of CRM and not with all. Based on these results, implications for CRM campaign managers are highlighted.

Todays business is growing up in a lightning speed. To cope up with that speed and not be out of the archive business are finding ways to build their empire in the minds of consumers. The roadmap to one such action leads the marketing managers to study the consumer perception. Companies are trying to be socially responsible by supporting social causes. The alignment between a brand and cause for the profit and societal benefits of both the parties is called the Cause Related Marketing. This study is an attempt to identify the role of cause attributes such as cause proximity, Cause Familiarity, Cause type and Company Cause Fit in the formation of perception towards Cause Related Marketing. This study also surveyed the most preferred cause by the respondents which they expect to be addressed importantly. To accomplish these, the researcher generated primary data using questionnaire as the research instrument. The questionnaires were administered to students of various colleges in Puducherry. Chi-square test was used to test the hypothesis.

Fusarium root rot, caused by Fusarium solani and F. tricinctum, is a major soybean disease in the North Central United States. This study investigated the effects of the macroconidia density and the additive effects of soybean cyst nematode (SCN), Heterodera glycines, on the severity of Fusarium root rot. To determine the effect of spore density on severity, experiments were conducted in La Prairie silt loam soil in a greenhouse using conidial suspensions ranging from 101 to 106 macroconidia/ml soil. Root discoloration and lesion lengths on taproots increased as spore numbers increased, with significant effects of spore densities starting at 104 and 105 macroconidia/ml soil for F. solani and F. tricinctum, respectively. A nonlinear sigmoid model was fitted to root discoloration against density, whereas a linear regression model was fitted to root lesion length against density. The interaction between the nematode at different egg densities with the two Fusarium spp. at 105 macroconidia/ml soil was investigated. In the greenhouse, root discoloration and lesion length were significantly greater in plants inoculated with Fusarium spp. and H. glycines at 10 eggs/ml soil or greater, compared with Fusarium spp. alone. In field trials, coinfestation of soil with the two Fusarium spp. and H. glycines significantly increased root rot severity at an egg density of 16.7 eggs/ml soil. The results indicated that the presence of SCN can increase severity of root rot caused by F. solani and F. tricinctum and egg density in the soil is an important factor in the interaction.

Soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merrill) yield losses as a result of plant diseases were estimated by university and government plant pathologists in 29 soybean producing states in the United States and in Ontario, Canada, from 2015 through 2019. In general, the estimated losses that resulted from each of 28 plant diseases or pathogens varied by state or province as well as year. Soybean cyst nematode (SCN) (Heterodera glycines Ichinohe) caused more than twice as much loss as any other disease during the survey period. Seedling diseases (caused by various pathogens), Sclerotinia stem rot (white mold) (caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum [Lib.] de Bary), and sudden death syndrome (caused by Fusarium virguliforme O’Donnell & T. Aoki) caused the next greatest yield losses, in descending order. Following SCN, the most damaging diseases in the northern United States and Ontario differed from those in the southern United States. The estimated mean economic loss from all soybean diseases, averaged across the United States and Ontario, Canada was US$45 per acre (US$111 per hectare). The outcome from the current survey will provide pertinent information regarding the important soybean diseases and their overall severity in the soybean crop and help guide future research and Extension efforts on managing soybean diseases.

Fusarium solani and F. tricinctum are important root rot pathogens of soybean in the northern Great Plains of North America. The role of temperature on their growth was investigated in vitro at tem...

Sphaerulina musiva, the causal agent of Septoria leaf spot and stem canker, is responsible for mortality and yield loss in Populus plantations. However, little is known about the mode of infection and the mechanisms of resistance in this pathosystem. To characterize these phenomena, microscopic, biochemical, and transcriptome comparisons were performed between leaves of moderately resistant and susceptible genotypes of Populus inoculated with S. musiva conidia. Using scanning electron, cryofracture, and laser-scanning confocal microscopy, the infection and colonization of Populus leaves by S. musiva were examined across five time points (48 h, 96 h, 1 week, 2 weeks, and 3 weeks). The infection process was similar regardless of the host genotype. Differences in host colonization between susceptible and moderately resistant genotypes were apparent by 1 week postinoculation. However, the germination of conidia was greater on the susceptible than on the moderately resistant genotype (P < 0.008). Diaminobenzidine staining, a measure of hydrogen peroxide accumulation, was different (P < 0.001) between the host genotypes by 2 weeks postinoculation. Transcriptome differences between genotypes indicated that the speed and amplitude of the defense response were faster and more extensive in the moderately resistant genotype. Changes in gene expression support the microscopic and biochemical observations.

Soybean cyst nematode (SCN; Heterodera glycines Ichinohe) is a major pathogen of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] in the United States. The spatial distribution of SCN in 10 naturally infested research sites in North Dakota was examined between 2006 and 2009. Egg densities were measured in plots and expressed as arithmetic means or grouped into classes using two categorical scales based on the effect of SCN on yield. Data were used to determine spatial distribution, egg cluster sizes, minimum plot sizes, and replications in field experiments. SCN populations varied among plots from undetected to 25,800 eggs/100 cm3 of soil, and differences between adjacent plots were as high as sixfold. Mean to median ratios and Lloyd’s index of patchiness suggested an aggregated distribution in nine of the 10 sites. SCN cluster sizes varied in five of the 10 sites and optimum plot size over all sites varied depending on calculation methods. The minimum number of replications needed to detect specific differences among plots varied between field sites. Grouping data into either of the two categories generally increased the ability to detect differences between plots. The spatial distribution of SCN can be a critical factor affecting design and outcomes of field experiments.

The soybean cyst nematode (SCN) Heterodera glycines is a major pathogen of soybean worldwide. Distinction between SCN and other members of the H. schachtii sensu stricto group based on morphology is a tedious task. A molecular assay was developed to detect SCN in field soils with low population densities and to differentiate SCN from other species. Various numbers of SCN eggs or juveniles were inoculated into 10 g of sterilized soil from which soil DNA was extracted using the PowerSoil DNA Isolation Kit. A specific amplicon was amplified using published SCN-specific primers SCNF1/SCNR1. This primer set was evaluated for the first time to detect SCN directly in soil DNA extracts. The specificity of the primers was confirmed by testing 36 isolates of other nematode species. The PCR assay detected one SCN egg or juvenile added to 10 g of soil. The assay was validated using 35 field soil samples. Grinding the field soil coupled with PCR inhibitor removal by AlNH4(SO4)20.12H2O treatment of soil DNA extracts followed by nested PCR enabled SCN detection as low as 12 SCN eggs/200 g soil. The PCR assay not only provides a sensitive method for SCN detection at low densities but also provides a discrimination method for SCN from other closely related nematodes.

Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) is produced across a vast swath of North America, with the greatest concentration in the Midwest. Root rot diseases and damping-off are a major concern for production, and the primary causal agents include oomycetes and fungi. In this study, we focused on examination of oomycete species distribution in this soybean production system and how environmental and soil (edaphic) factors correlate with oomycete community composition at early plant growth stages. Using a culture-based approach, 3,418 oomycete isolates were collected from 11 major soybean-producing states and most were identified to genus and species using the internal transcribed spacer region of the ribosomal DNA. Pythium was the predominant genus isolated and investigated in this study. An ecology approach was taken to understand the diversity and distribution of oomycete species across geographical locations of soybean production. Metadata associated with field sample locations were collected using geographical information systems. Operational taxonomic units (OTU) were used in this study to investigate diversity by location, with OTU being defined as isolate sequences with 97% identity to one another. The mean number of OTU ranged from 2.5 to 14 per field at the state level. Most OTU in this study, classified as Pythium clades, were present in each field in every state; however, major differences were observed in the relative abundance of each clade, which resulted in clustering of states in close proximity. Because there was similar community composition (presence or absence) but differences in OTU abundance by state, the ordination analysis did not show strong patterns of aggregation. Incorporation of 37 environmental and edaphic factors using vector-fitting and Mantel tests identified 15 factors that correlate with the community composition in this survey. Further investigation using redundancy analysis identified latitude, longitude, precipitation, and temperature as factors that contribute to the variability observed in community composition. Soil parameters such as clay content and electrical conductivity also affected distribution of oomycete species. The present study suggests that oomycete species composition across geographical locations of soybean production is affected by a combination of environmental and edaphic conditions. This knowledge provides the basis to understand the ecology and distribution of oomycete species, especially those able to cause diseases in soybean, providing cues to develop management strategies. National Institute of Food and Agriculture/[2011-68004-30104]/USDA/Estados Unidos Michigan State University/[GR11-081]//Estados Unidos United Soybean Board/[]/USB/Estados Unidos The North Central Soybean Research Program/[]/NCSRP/Estados Unidos Grain Farmers of Ontario/[]//Cánada UCR::Vicerrectoría de Investigación::Unidades de Investigación::Ciencias Agroalimentarias::Centro para Investigaciones en Granos y Semillas (CIGRAS)

Annual decreases in soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) yield caused by diseases were estimated by surveying university-affiliated plant pathologists in 28 soybean-producing states in the United States and in Ontario, Canada, from 2010 through 2014. Estimated yield losses from each disease varied greatly by state or province and year. Over the duration of this survey, soybean cyst nematode (SCN) (Heterodera glycines Ichinohe) was estimated to have caused more than twice as much yield loss than any other disease. Seedling diseases (caused by various pathogens), charcoal rot (caused by Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid), and sudden death syndrome (SDS) (caused by Fusarium virguliforme O’Donnell & T. Aoki) caused the next greatest estimated yield losses, in descending order. The estimated mean economic loss due to all soybean diseases, averaged across U.S. states and Ontario from 2010 to 2014, was $60.66 USD per acre. Results from this survey will provide scientists, breeders, governments, and educators with soybean yield-loss estimates to help inform and prioritize research, policy, and educational efforts in soybean pathology and disease management.

A novel picorna-like virus, provisionally named Aphis glycines virus 1 (ApGlV1) was discovered by high-throughput sequencing of soybean total RNAs and detected in suction trap-collected Aphis glycines. The ApGlV1 genome contains two large ORFs organized similar to those of dicipiviruses in the Picornaviridae where ORFs 1 and 2 encode structural and nonstructural proteins, respectively. Both ORFs are preceded by internal ribosome entry site (IRES) elements. The 5' IRES was more active in dual luciferase activity assays than the IRES in the intergenic region. The ApGlV1 genome was predicted to encode a serine protease instead of a cysteine protease and showed very low aa sequence identities to recognized members of the Picornavirales. In phylogenetic analyses based on capsid protein and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase sequences, ApGlV1 consistently clustered with a group of unclassified bicistronic picorna-like viruses discovered from arthropods and plants that may represent a novel family in the order Picornavirales.

Hoffman, D. D., Diers, B. W., Hartman, G. L., Nickell, C. D., Nelson, R. L., Pedersen, W. L., Cober, E. R., Graef, G. L., Steadman, J. R., Grau, C. R., Nelson, B. D., del Rio, L. E., Helms, T., Anderson, T., Poysa, V., Rajcan, I., and Stienstra, W. C. 2002. Selected soybean plant introductions with partial resistance to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Plant Dis. 86:971-980. Sclerotinia stem rot, caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, is a major soybean (Glycine max) disease in north-central regions of the United States and throughout the world. Current sources of resistance to Sclerotinia stem rot express partial resistance, and are limited in number within soybean germ plasm. A total of 6,520 maturity group (MG) 0 to IV plant introductions (PIs) were evaluated for Sclerotinia stem rot resistance in the United States and Canada in small plots or in the greenhouse from 1995 to 1997. Selected PIs with the most resistance were evaluated for resistance in the United States and Canada in replicated large plots from 1998 to 2000. The PIs in the MG I to III tests in Urbana, IL were evaluated for agronomic traits from 1998 to 2000. The selected PIs also were evaluated with an excised leaf inoculation and petiole inoculation technique. After the 1995 to 1997 evaluations, all but 68 PIs were eliminated because of their susceptibility to Sclerotinia stem rot. In field tests in Urbana, higher disease severity in selected MG I to III PIs was significantly (P < 0.05) associated with taller plant heights and greater canopy closure. All other agronomic traits evaluated were not associated or were inconsistently associated with disease severity. MG I to III PIs 153.282, 189.931, 196.157, 398.637, 417.201, 423.818, and 561.331 had high levels of resistance and had canopies similar to the resistant checks. The resistance ratings from the petiole inoculation technique had a high and significant (P < 0.01) correlation with disease severity in the MG I and II field tests. The partially resistant PIs identified in this study can be valuable in incorporating Sclerotinia stem rot resistance into elite germ plasm.

During August 2003, soybean (Glycine max) plants from Richland County, North Dakota with white-to-yellow, lemon-shaped structures on the roots were brought to the North Dakota State University Plant Diagnostic Laboratory. To confirm that the structures were females of a cyst nematode, they were crushed and observed microscopically to determine if nematode eggs and second-stage juveniles were present. Morphology of the second-stage juveniles was consistent with Heterodera glycines, the soybean cyst nematode (SCN). A survey was conducted in soybean fields in 34 km2 around the field in which the samples originated. Ten of twenty fields surveyed had visible females on the roots of plants. Symptoms observed in those fields included patches of stunted, chlorotic, and dead plants. Soil samples were collected from selected areas within eight fields, eggs were extracted using standard soil sieving techniques, and egg numbers were determined. Egg numbers ranged from 550 to 20,000 eggs per 100 cm3 of soil. SCN collected from two different fields, designated as Dwight and LaMars, were used to determine their HG Type. Standardized procedures (1) were used in a growth chamber set at 27°C with 16-h days. Pots in the test were organized in a completely randomized design with three replicates; the test was repeated over time. After 30 days, females were extracted from roots and counted, and a female index (FI) was calculated for each indicator line (1). The mean number of females on susceptible standard cv. Lee 74, was 110. The Dwight SCN population had an FI of 5.3 on plant introduction (PI) 88788, 1.5 on PI 209332, 5.8 on PI 548316 (Cloud), and 0 on all other indicator lines. The LaMars population had an FI of 1.0 on PI 88788, 3.1 on PI 548316 (Cloud), and 0 on all other indicator lines. These results indicate that both SCN populations tested are HG Type 0. To our knowledge, this is the first report of SCN on soybean in North Dakota. Because other hosts of SCN, as well as soybean, are economically important in North Dakota, such as dry edible bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and dry pea (Pisum sativum), this disease could adversely impact several commodities throughout the state. Reference: (1) T. L. Niblack et al. J. Nematol. 34:279, 2002.

Phytophthora root rot, caused by Phytophthora sojae, is the most important disease of soybean (Glycine max) in North Dakota. Because of the expansion of soybean hectares and appearance of disease on cultivars with resistance genes, we investigated the pathotypes, distribution, and metalaxyl sensitivity of P. sojae in North Dakota. Soil from 347 soybean fields in 20 counties in eastern North Dakota was collected between 2002 and 2004, and P. sojae was baited from the soil with the susceptible cultivar McCall. The virulence phenotype of each isolate was determined on eight differentials, and all isolates were tested for sensitivity to metalaxyl incorporated into V8 agar. The pathogen was recovered from 80 fields located in five counties. Sixteen pathotypes, which included 14 known races and two previously reported pathotypes that had not been assigned a race, were identified out of 157 isolates. A single pathotype was recovered from 61 fields, 2 pathotypes from 14 fields, 3 pathotypes from 4 fields, and 4 pathotypes from 1 field. Pathotypes with virulence phenotypes 1a,1c,7 (race 4; 39%) and 1a,7 (race 3; 28%) were the most common, representing 67% of the total isolates. One or both of these pathotypes was found in 79% of the fields where P. sojae was recovered. Seven of the 157 isolates showed limited growth on metalaxyl after 14 days of incubation. In the past 10 years, the number of pathotypes of P. sojae in North Dakota has increased from 4 to 16, and pathotypes have developed that can attack the three most common resistance genes found in soybean cultivars for the region.

Dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is a host of the soybean cyst nematode (SCN; Heterodera glycines). Twenty-four cultivars of dry bean representing pinto, navy, black, and kidney bean classes were evaluated for host suitability for SCN HG type 0 in the greenhouse. Females of SCN developed normally on all dry bean cultivars in 30 days. Eggs collected from roots of dry bean plants were as effective as inoculum for soybean as eggs collected from roots of soybean. Averaged over experiments, the number of SCN females per plant was significantly lower (P ≤ 0.001) on pinto, navy, and black bean than on the susceptible soybean Lee 74. There was no difference in the number of females between kidney bean and soybean. Numbers of females per plant differed (P ≤ 0.001) among navy cultivars but not among cultivars in the other three bean classes. A female index (FI = the average number of females on the test plant divided by the average number of females on the susceptible soybean Lee 74 × 100) was calculated for each cultivar to evaluate resistance to SCN. FIs varied from 5 to 117, indicating a range of susceptibility in the crop. Kidney bean averaged the highest FI at 110, followed by navy, pinto, and black at FI = 41, 39, and 16, respectively. SCN is a potential threat to dry bean in the northern production area of North Dakota and northern Minnesota.

Soybean, Glycine max L, is grown on 1,420,000 ha in North Dakota and is the most important oilseed crop in the state. Viruses in soybean have not previously been reported from North Dakota (2). In July and August of 2007, 64 soybean fields in Cass, Richland, and Sargent counties in southeastern North Dakota were surveyed for Soybean mosaic virus (SMV). These counties have a high concentration of soybean hectares, a long history of soybean production, and soybean aphid infestations that were observed in 2004 and 2006. Fields were sampled with a grid pattern across the area with at least 8 km (5 miles) between fields. A transect of approximately 60 m through each field was made and 20 leaves were collected at random. Sap was extracted in phosphate buffer and stored at –80°C until tested first using double antibody sandwich (DAS)-ELISA with positive controls and reagents and protocol from Agdia Inc. (Elkhart, IN). Using DAS-ELISA, SMV was detected in 19 of the 64 soybean fields sampled. To confirm the presence of SMV, 12 samples that were positive for SMV by DAS-ELISA also were tested by reverse transcription (RT)-PCR. RNA was extracted from sap by a Qiagen RNeasy Plant Mini Kit (Germantown, MD), reverse transcribed, and amplified with SuperScrip III Platinum SYBR Green One-Step qRT-PCR Kit (Invitrogen Inc., Carlsbad, CA) and SMV-specific primers (5′-TTCAGCACAATGGGTGAGGATG-3′ and 5′-AATTCTGTGTGGCTTGATGTTGC-3′) (1). Eight of the twelve ELISA-positive samples were positive for SMV by RT-PCR, confirming the presence of SMV in the samples. To our knowledge, this is the first report of SMV infecting soybean in North Dakota. References: (1) L. L. Domier et al. (Abstr.). Phytopathology 98(suppl.):S47, 2008. (2) B. D. Nelson and G. Danielson. (Abstr.). Phytopathology 95(suppl.):S164, 2005.

Phaseolus vulgaris is a host of soybean cyst nematode (SCN; Heterodera glycines), a pathogen recently introduced into the major dry bean production area of North Dakota and northern Minnesota. The nematode reproduces less on most bean classes compared with soybean but can reduce plant growth and seed yield. An important question is the following: will SCN adapt to dry bean and, over time, increase in ability to reproduce on roots? To answer this question, the following experiments were conducted with cultivars from three bean classes. The cultivars ‘Premiere’ and ‘Cirrus’ (navy), ‘Buster’ and ‘Othello’ (pinto), and ‘Eclipse’ and ‘Jaguar’ (black) were grown in “Cone-tainers” in sand in plastic pots immersed in a water bath at 27°C in the greenhouse. Seedlings were inoculated with 2,000 eggs per plant of SCN HG 0 and cysts were harvested and counted after 40 days. The eggs were immediately extracted from those cysts and seedlings were inoculated again and grown for 40 days using the same methods. Soybean ‘Lee 74’ was used as a control. A female index (number of cysts produced on the test plant divided by the number of cysts produced on Lee 74) was calculated for each bean cultivar after each period of 40 days. This procedure was repeated until eight generations of eggs were completed and then the experiment was repeated. There was no significant (P ≤ 0.05) change over time in the female index on the six bean cultivars. Therefore, there was no evidence that SCN HG 0 was increasing reproduction on dry bean cultivars during two 11-month periods of continual reproduction of HG 0 on roots.

Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) and canola (Brassica napus L.) are major crops in North Dakota, with sugar beet production primarily in the eastern part of the state in the Red River Valley and canola production across the northern half of the state. Both crops are hosts of sugar beet cyst nematode (SBCN), Heterodera schachtii Schmidt. In April 2011, soil samples were collected from four sugar beet fields belonging to three growers who believed the fields were infested with SBCN. The fields were located in a 65-km2 area in the Yellowstone Valley of western North Dakota. Cysts were extracted by sieving and Heterodera-like cysts with eggs were observed in all four soil samples. Population densities in the four fields ranged from 100 to 1,750 eggs/100 cm3 soil. Sugar beet seedlings (cv. M832224) were grown in a potting mix for 6 weeks in the greenhouse and then transferred to conetainers (type D40; volume 656 ml) containing autoclaved river sand. Conetainers were placed in sand in plastic pots immersed in a water bath at 27°C. Three plants were each infested with 800 eggs from field No. 2. After 55 days of incubation, the average number of females was 115 per plant. A similar experiment was conducted with canola cvs. Hyclass 940, Caliber 30, and Westar, which were inoculated with 500 eggs each from field No. 2. After 53 days of incubation, there was an average of 39, 20, and 30 females for each respective cultivar. Flask-shaped cysts (n = 26) from canola roots were light to dark brown; the vulval cone was ambifinestrate with dark brown, molar-shaped bullae positioned underneath the vulval bridge. Body length (excluding neck) ranged from 600 to 850 μm (mean 701.2 μm); body width, 350 to 580 μm (mean 469.2 μm); and length/width ratio, 1.2 to 1.8 (mean 1.5). Second-stage juvenile (J2) (n = 21) body length ranged from 400 to 485 μm (mean 437.1 μm); stylet length was 25 μm (no variation) with forwardly directed knobs; conical tail with rounded tip ranged from 37.5 to 55.0 μm long (mean 46.6 μm) with hyaline region from 20.0 to 32.5 μm (mean 27.3 μm); and lateral field presented four incisures. These morphometrics were used to identify H. schachtii according to Subbotin et al. (4). Confirmation of identification was by amplification and sequencing of a 28S rDNA gene fragment (1) from individual females (GenBank Accession No. JQ040526), which was 100% identical to H. schachtii 28S rDNA sequence (GenBank Accession No. GU475088). To our knowledge, this is the first confirmed report of H. schachtii in North Dakota. A 1958 report of SBCN in North Dakota (2) was not subsequently confirmed (3). Because there is extensive canola production across the northern part of the state bordering western and eastern sugar beet- production areas, canola may serve as a bridge for movement of SBCN from west to east. SBCN is a potential threat to these two important crops. References: (1) A. Amiri et al. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 108:497, 2002. (2) F. Caveness. J. Sugar Beet Res. 10:544, 1958. (3) P. Donald and R. Hosford. Plant Dis. 64:45, 1980. (4) S. A. Subbotin et al. Systematics of Cyst Nematodes (Nematoda: Heteroderinae). Nematology Monographs and Perspectives. Vol. 8B. Brill, The Netherlands. 2010.

Fusarium solani species complex (FSSC) 11 is the primary phylogenetic species of FSSC causing root rot in soybean in the north-central United States. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assay was developed to identify and differentiate FSSC 11 from the less aggressive FSSC 5 and other Fusarium and Pythium spp. associated with soybean roots. The primer set FSSC11-F and FSSC11-R designed from the RNA polymerase second largest subunit gene yielded the expected amplicon of about 900 bp with DNA from all 22 FSSC 11 isolates tested in PCR. However, it did not produce an amplicon with DNA from 29 isolates of FSSC 5, seven other Fusarium spp., three Pythium spp., and soybean tested in PCR. Furthermore, the primer set successfully detected FSSC 11 from a DNA mixture containing the DNA of FSSC 11, FSSC 5, other Fusarium spp., and soybean. The primer set also detected FSSC 11 from both soil and soybean roots. Additionally, the prevalence of FSSC 11 in soybean roots was determined in five fields in North Dakota by both a culture-independent PCR approach with FSSC11-F and FSSC11-R and a culture-dependent approach. Results from both the culture-dependent and culture-independent approaches with FSSC11-F and FSSC11-R were consistent and revealed the presence of the FSSC 11 in three of five fields sampled.

Annual decreases in corn yield caused by diseases were estimated by surveying members of the Corn Disease Working Group in 22 corn-producing states in the United States and in Ontario, Canada, from 2012 through 2015. Estimated loss from each disease varied greatly by state and year. In general, foliar diseases such as northern corn leaf blight, gray leaf spot, and Goss's wilt commonly caused the largest estimated yield loss in the northern United States and Ontario during non-drought years. Fusarium stalk rot and plant-parasitic nematodes caused the most estimated loss in the southern-most United States. The estimated mean economic loss due to yield loss by corn diseases in the United States and Ontario from 2012 to 2015 was $76.51 USD per acre. The cost of disease-mitigating strategies is another potential source of profit loss. Results from this survey will provide scientists, breeders, government, and educators with data to help inform and prioritize research, policy, and educational efforts in corn pathology and disease management. Accepted for publication 26 August 2016.