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We determined the response of the small southern pine engraver, Ips avulsus (Eichhoff); eastern fivespined ips, Ips grandicollis (Eichhoff); sixspined ips, Ips calligraphus (Germar); and pine engraver, Ips pini (Say) to the pheromones (+/-)-ipsenol, (+/-)-ipsdienol, and lanierone in the southeastern United States. Catches of I. avulsus and I. grandicollis to baited multiple-funnel traps were increased by (+/-)-ipsenol and (+/-)-ipsdienol in Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and North Carolina. In all four localities, the highest numbers of I. avulsus were caught in traps baited with the combination of (+/-)-ipsenol, (+/-)-ipsdienol, and lanierone. In Florida, the highest numbers of I. grandicollis were captured in traps baited with the combination of (+/-)-ipsenol and (+/-)-ipsdienol (with or without lanierone). In the remaining three localities, the largest catches of I. grandicollis occurred in traps baited with (+/-)-ipsenol alone or the combination of (+/-)-ipsenol and (+/-)-ipsdienol (with or without lanierone). (+/-)-Ipsdienol was the only consistent attractant for I. calligraphus and I. pini. Attraction of I. pini in North Carolina to (+/-)-ipsdienol-baited traps was synergized by lanierone but interrupted with (+/-)-ipsenol. The interruptive effect of (+/-)-ipsenol on attraction of I. pini to (+/-)-ipsdienol was negated by lanierone. (+/-)-Ipsdienol was attractive to black turpentine beetle, Dendroctonus terebrans (Olivier), in Florida but not North Carolina, whereas (+/-)-ipsdienol was attractive to I. calligraphus in Louisiana, Georgia, and Florida. Both (+/-)-ipsenol and (+/-)-ipsdienol affected catches of Gnathotrichus materiarus (Fitch) in North Carolina. Trap catches of Hylurgops rugipennis pinifex (Fitch), Hylastes salebrosus Eichhoff, and Hylastes tenuis Eichhoff were unaffected by the pheromone treatments. The combination of (+/-)-ipsenol, (+/-)-ipsdienol, and lanierone may be a cost-effective general lure for I. avulsus, I. grandicollis, and I. pini.

Ovipositing female Nantucket pine tip moth, Rhyacionia frustrana, prefer loblolly pine, Pinus taeda L., to slash pine, Pinus elliottii Engelm, except during the first spring following planting of seedlings. Host discrimination by R. frustrana increases as seedlings develop, suggesting that changes in the chemical composition of seedlings may mediate the moth's host preferences. Volatile compounds from slash and loblolly pine seedlings were collected using solid-phase microextraction (SPME) during the first year following planting. Four collection periods coincided with adult emergence and oviposition during each of four annual generations of R. frustrana in the Georgia Coastal Plain. Infestation of slash pine peaked during the second tip moth generation and was similar to the loblolly pine infestation level. By the fourth tip moth generation, slash pine infestation levels had declined and diverged considerably from those of loblolly pine. Significant differences in relative quantities of beta-pinene, alpha-phellandrene, limonene, beta-phellandrene, bornyl acetate, beta-caryophyllene, and an unidentified sesquiterpene occurred between slash and loblolly pine during the fourth generation. However, no strong correlation was observed between any individual compound and host damage that could readily explain the temporal changes in R. frustrana host preference. Gas chromatographic-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) analyses of standards identified 19 different seedling-associated compounds that elicited antennal responses from R. frustrana females, indicating that a blend of terpenoids may mediate host discrimination.

In laboratory olfactometer bioassays, females of two hymenopteran parasitoid species, Roptrocerus xylophagorum (Ratzeburg) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) and Spathius pallidus (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), were attracted to odors from bark or bolts of loblolly pine, Pinus taeda L., colonized by bluestain fungi (genus Ophiostoma) associated with the parasitoids' bark beetle hosts. Mock-inoculated bolts and bark were less attractive or unattractive in these bioassays. Bark infested with host larvae that lacked their fungal and other normal microbial associates was attractive to R. xylophagorum females, but was less so than bark infested with larvae possessing their normal complement of associated microbes. In contrast, in oviposition bioassays, R. xylophagorum females spent approximately equal time searching, made similar numbers of oviposition attempts, parasitized similar percentages of hosts, and laid similar numbers of eggs in bark fragments infested with either associate-free or associate-bearing host larvae. Furthermore, in field bioassays using bluestain-inoculated or mock-inoculated loblolly pine bolts as sources of attractants, the numbers of parasitoids attracted by the two treatments did not differ significantly and the two treatments were less attractive than bolts naturally infested with bark beetle larvae. Whereas our laboratory olfactometer data suggest that bark beetle fungal associates may enhance attraction of some parasitoids, our bioassays with associate-free hosts indicate that associate-produced are not required for short-range host location and parasitization. In addition, our field trials indicated that long-range attraction of parasitoids to the host-fungi-tree complex is not caused simply by an interaction between bluestain fungi and tree tissues.

The pine shoot beetle, Tomicus piniperda (L.), is an exotic pest that has become established in North America. Discovered in Ohio in 1992, it has since been found in at least 13 states and parts of Canada. The beetle can cause significant growth loss in pines, and it represents a potential threat to trees in areas where it has not yet become established. To evaluate this threat to native pines, field and laboratory tests were conducted on several common and important southern and western species to determine whether they are acceptable hosts for T. piniperda. Comparisons with Pinus sylvestris L., Scots pine, a preferred natural host for the beetle, were made where possible. Measurements of beetle attack success on southern pine billets showed that Pinus taeda L., Pinus echinata Miller, Pinus elliottii var. elliottii Engelmann, Pinus palustris Miller, and Pinus virginiana Miller (loblolly, shortleaf, slash, longleaf, and Virginia pine, respectively) and two western pines, Pinus ponderosa Lawson and Pinus contorta Douglas (ponderosa and lodgepole pine, respectively), were acceptable for breeding material, but brood production was highly variable. Among the southern pines, P. taeda and P. echinata were susceptible to shoot feeding by T. piniperda, whereas P. elliottii was highly resistant and P. palustris seemed to be virtually immune. Shoot feeding tests on the western pines were conducted only in the laboratory, but there was moderate-to-good survival of adults feeding on both species. It seems that if T. piniperda is introduced into the south and west it will likely establish and may cause some damage to native pines. P. taeda may be affected more than other southern pines because it is the most abundant species, it is readily attacked for brood production, which can result in moderately large broods, and the beetle survives well during maturation feeding on P. taeda shoots.

Currently, there is an elevated interest in reducing feeding damage caused by the Nantucket pine tip moth, Rhyacionia frustrana (Comstock), a common regeneration pest of loblolly pine, Pinus taeda L. The toxicity of several insecticides was tested in a laboratory against four common R. frustrana parasitoids. There were no differences in parasitoid mortality between the control and indoxacarb treatments. However, the pyrethroids, permethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin, caused significantly more mortality initially (up to 240 min exposure time) than other insecticides. Spinosad was less toxic than the pyrethroids initially, but the spinosad related mortality increased with time until it reached a level similar to the pyrethroids. For the most part, spinosad and the pyrethroids caused more mortality than the control and indoxacarb treatmtents within the 1-d sample period. These results may have important implications for decisions concerning which insecticides are best suited for reducing pest damage while conserving natural enemies in timber and agricultural systems. Large-scale field trials are required to further define the impacts of these insecticides on natural enemies.

We examined effects of aerial application of acephate (Orthene), Bacillus thuringiensis variety kurstaki Berliner (Foray), and tebufenozide (Mimic) on larval/pupal parasitoids of the Nantucket pine tip moth, Rhyacionia frustrana (Comstock), in the southwestern Georgia coastal plain. Parasitism of tip moths in acephate-treated plots was significantly lower than in untreated plots. Bacillus thuringiensis and tebufenozide showed no significant effects on parasitism. A tachinid, Lixophaga mediocris Aldrich, comprised a significantly greater proportion of emerging parasitoids in acephate-treated than in untreated control plots, whereas a chalcidid, Haltichella rhyacioniae Gahan, was less abundant in the acephate-treated plots. Acephate has a negative, but somewhat species-specific, impact on tip moth parasitism.

Eucalyptus spp. plantations represent >60% of the reforested area in Brazil. Although ambrosia beetle attacks on live trees were at first nonexistent, they have begun to appear with greater frequency. Monitoring for pest insects is a key factor in integrated pest management, and baited traps are one of the most widely used methods for insect population detection and survey. We compared the efficiency of the most widely used trap in Brazil to survey for ambrosia beetles and other Scolytidae, the ESALQ-84 type, with other traditionally employed traps: the multiple funnel (Lindgren trap); drainpipe; and slot (Theyson) traps, in a Eucalyptus grandis Hill ex Maiden stand in Brazil. The ESALQ-84 trap was the most efficient in trapping Hypothenemus eruditus Westwood and Hypothenemus obscurus (F.); the multiple funnel trap caught significantly more Cryptocarenus diadematus Eggers; whereas the slot trap caught more Premnobius cavipennis Eichhoff and Xyleborus affinis Eichhoff than the other traps. The drainpipe trap was the least effective trap overall. When corrected for number of beetles caught per trap surface area, catches were significantly higher on the ESALQ-84 trap for the majority of the species analyzed, probably because of a smaller trap surface area. The slot trap was recommended for it caught overall more beetles of the three most economically important scolytid species in eucalypt plantations in Brazil, P. cavipennis, X. affinis, and X. ferrugineus.

The Nantucket pine tip moth, Rhyaciona frustrana (Comstock), a common regeneration pest of loblolly pine, Pinus taeda L., has been shown to reduce tree volume yields through larval feeding. Chemical applications can be effective in protecting trees from the growth losses associated with this feeding, and optimum spray timing values are commonly used to reduce the number of necessary applications and to increase insecticide efficacy. Optimal spray timing values for the Georgia Piedmont were obtained for the following four insecticides available for use in loblolly pine plantations: permethrin (Pounce), lambda-cyhalothrin (Warrior T), spinosad (SpinTor 2 SC), and Bacillus thuringiensis variety kurstaki Berliner (Foray 48B). Optimal timing values were similar between the first and second generations for each of these compounds. All of the insecticides used in this study significantly reduced tip moth damage below the control treatment levels. Lambda-cyhalothrin was the most efficacious and had the longest spray timing window. B. thuringiensis was the least effective and had the shortest timing window. Spinosad and permethrin were similar in efficacy and spray timing values. This information is applicable to regions where there are three tip moth generations per year, as found in the southern Piedmont region and the coastal plain of Virginia and most of North Carolina.

Intensive forest management practices have been shown to increase tree growth and shorten rotation time. However, they may also lead to an increased need for insect pest management because of higher infestation levels and lower action thresholds. To investigate the relationship between intensive management practices and insect infestation, maximum growth potential studies of loblolly pine, Pinus taeda L., were conducted over 4 yr using a hierarchy of cultural treatments. The treatments were herbaceous weed control (H), H + irrigation (I), H + I + fertilizer (F), and H + I + F + pest control (P). These treatments were monitored for differences in growth and insect infestation levels related to the increasing management intensities. The Nantucket pine tip moth, Rhyacionia frustrana (Comstock), was consistently found infesting study trees. In the third field season, the H + I + F + P treatment had significantly more southern pine coneworm, Dioryctria amatella (Hulst), attacks than the H and H + I treatments. There were significant differences in volume index (D2H) among all treatments after each of the four growing seasons. This study indicated that tree fertilization can increase coneworm infestation and demonstrated that tip moth management can improve tree growth initially. Future measurements will determine if the growth gains from tip moth management are transitory or sustainable.

Female white pine cone beetles,Conophthorus coniperda, attacking second-year cones of eastern white pine,Pinus strobus L., produced a sex-specific pheromone that attracted conspecific males in laboratory bioassays and to field traps. Beetle response was enhanced by host monoterpenes. The female-produced compound was identified in volatiles collected on Porapak Q and in hindgut extracts as (+)-trans-pityol, (2R,5S)-(+)-2-(1-hydroxy-1-methylethyl)-5-methyltetrahydrofuran. Males and females produced and released the (E)-(-)-spiroacetal, (5S,7S)-(-)-7-methyl-1,6-dioxaspiro[4.5]decane, which was not an attractant for either sex, but acted as a repellent for males. Porapak Q-trapped volatiles from both sexes contained (+)-trans-pinocarveol and (-)-myrtenol. In addition, hindgut extracts of females containedtrans-verbenol, while males had pinocarvone and verbenone. Work in Georgia and Canada confirmed that the same isomers of pityol and spiroacetal are present in two distinct and widely separated populations ofC. coniperda.

In two studies using the electroantennogram (EAG) technique, bark beetle- and tree-produced semiochemicals were presented toDinotiscus dendroctoni (Ashmead), a larval parasitoid ofDendroctonus frontalis Zimm. In the first study, 20 test compounds and a standard mixture of oxygenated monoterpenes were presented individually at one concentration to the parasitoids. In the second study, the nine compounds that elicited the greatest EAGs in study 1 were then tested as serial dilutions of 10 to 0.0001μg/ul. The individual compounds did not elicit responses greater than the standard mixture of oxygenated monoterpenes. Males and females exhibited similar dose responses, although females showed lower thresholds of response than males to frontalin, terpinen-4-ol,E,Z-chalcogran, andexo-brevicomin. In both studies, pino-/isopinocamphone elicited the greatest responses at high concentrations. Tests of different ratios of the camphone mixture indicated that pinocamphone elicited the greatest response. Most of the test compounds elicited similar responses which suggests that several of the compounds may be used together byD. dendroctoni in habitat and/or host community location.

Two compounds identified as components of the sex pheromone system ofRhyacionia frustrana are (E)-9-dodecen-1-yl acetate (I) and (E)-9,11-dodecadien-1-yl acetate (II), which were found in female gland extracts in the ratio of 96∶4, respectively. The identifications were based on chemical and instrumental analyses, electroantennogram studies, and field trapping tests. The optimum ratio for trapping maleR. frustrana is the range of 95∶5 to 97.5∶2.5 (I∶II), when dispensed from rubber septa at a loading of ca. 1000/μg/lure. In addition to these two compounds, evidence was obtained for the presence of dodecan-1-ol and (E)-9-dodecen-1-ol in female tip extracts and in female effluvium, and for dodecan-1-yl acetate in female tip extracts.

An "H"-type olfactometer was designed and built to test the response of bark beetle parasites to various beetle and tree host odors. The design has several advantages over other types of olfactometers. Strong air currents are not utilized, parasites have free movement in the test chamber, and a concentration gradient of test compound is maintained. Parasites tested in the olfactometer demonstrated strong positive responses to air drawn over logs infested with bark beetle larvae and varied responses to tree host odors.

In laboratory and field bioassays, the response ofDendroctonus frontalis was significantly greater to the mixture of (1S, 5R)-(-)-frontalin andalpha-pinene than to (1R,5S)-(+)-frontalin andalpfa-pinene. Electro-physiological studies revealed that antennal olfactory receptor cells were significantly more responsive to (1S, 5R)-(-)-frontalin than to (1R, 5S)-(+)-frontalin. Both enantiomers stimulated the same olfactory cells which suggests that each cell possesses at least two types of enantiomer-specific acceptors.

Volatiles collected on Poropak Q from fusiform rust galls (Cronartium quercuum F. sp.fusiforme) of loblolly pine for 3 hr were better ovi-position stimulants forDioryctria amatella (Hulst) females than extracts of 8-hr collections. GLC analysis of these extracts showed no major differences in relative monoterpene composition, although 8-hr collections contained an unidentified compound not detected in the 3-hr collections. Comparison of volatiles from second-year loblolly pine cones with those from fusiform galls showed that both containeddl-α-pinene, (-)-β-pinene, myrcene, and (+)-limonene. Camphene was found in galls only, and relatively large quantities of β-phellandrene were identified only from cones. The five major monoterpenes found in the two host substrates were tested in an oviposition bioassay. Eighteen trials using different combinations of these terpenes showed that the combination of α-pinene, myrcene, and limonene was as attractive toD. amatella females as all other terpene combinations, including turpentine.

The response ofDendroctonus frontalis to an attractant mixture (frontalin,trans-verbenol, and loblolly pine turpentine) was measured in the laboratory over a four-year period. Beetle response was highest in late winter and early spring, and lowest in midsummer and early fall. Males consistently responded higher than females. Female beetles displayed significantly higher responses in early morning and late afternoon than in the middle of the day. Analysis of beetle pronotal width and fat content revealed a high degree of correlation between these two parameters in female beetles, but there was no correlation of response with either fat content or pronotal width for either sex. There was no evident relationship between mean monthly beetle response and total amounts of frontalin andtrans-veibenol found in hindgut extracts. Daily temperature in months both during which beetles were bioassayed and immediately prior to bioassay was highly correlated to response to the attractant.