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Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are bioactive factors that benefit neonatal health, but little is known about effects on growth in very preterm infants (<32 weeks' gestation). We aimed to quantify HMO concentrations in human milk fed to very preterm infants during the neonatal hospitalization and investigate associations of HMOs with infant size and body composition at term-equivalent age. In 82 human-milk-fed very preterm infants, we measured HMO concentrations at two time points. We measured anthropometrics and body composition with air displacement plethysmography at term-equivalent age. We calculated means of individual and total HMOs, constructed tertiles of mean HMO concentrations, and assessed differences in outcomes comparing infants in the highest and intermediate tertiles with the lowest tertile using linear mixed effects models, adjusted for potential confounders. The mean (SD) infant gestational age was 28.2 (2.2) weeks, and birthweight was 1063 (386) grams. Exposure to the highest (vs. lowest) tertile of HMO concentrations was not associated with anthropometric or body composition z-scores at term-corrected age. Exposure to the intermediate (vs. lowest) tertile of 3FL was associated with a greater head circumference z-score (0.61, 95% CI 0.15, 1.07). Overall, the results do not support that higher HMO intakes influence growth outcomes in this very preterm cohort.

Characterization of the nutrients in human milk is important to understand the dietary and developmental requirements of infants. The objective of this review was to summarize the state-of-the-science on the nutrient composition of human milk in the United States and Canada published from 2017 to 2022. Four databases were searched for randomized controlled studies and others given the scoping nature of this review. We limited type to mature milk collected 21 d postpartum and beyond from lactating individuals in the United States and Canada who gave birth at 37-wk gestation or later (full-term). Outcomes of interest included traditional macro- and micronutrients, including human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), and milk volume. The publication date range was selected as January 1, 2017, to the day the literature search was performed. A total of 32 articles were included in the scoping review from primarily longitudinal cohort or cross-sectional designs. The most prevalent sample collection method was full-breast expression (n = 20) with most studies (n = 26) collecting samples from a single timepoint. Carbohydrates (HMOs [n = 12], glucose [n = 8], and lactose [n = 6]) and protein (n = 5) were the most frequently assessed nutrients in this body of work, with consensus among studies that glucose is present in limited concentrations compared to lactose (24-64 mg/dL compared with 6-7 g/dL) and that HMOs are influenced by temporality and secretor status. Included studies displayed an overall level of heterogeneity and sparsity paralleling previous reports and nutrient data in the USDA FoodData Central system. Much of the data extracted from retained articles generally provided analysis of a specific nutrient or group of nutrients. Moreover, many studies did not use the preferred analytical methods as outlined by the Human Milk Composition Initiative to increase measurement confidence. Up-to-date nutrient composition data of human milk is still greatly needed as it is paramount for the management of infant feeding, assessment of infant and maternal nutritional and health needs, and as a reference for infant formula development., (Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Complementary feeding practices may contribute to toddler eating practices that affect weight outcomes. Studies are needed to understand the relationship between complementary feeding practices and toddler dietary self-regulation., Objective: This study tests the hypothesis that earlier complementary food introduction predicts toddler food responsiveness and emotional overeating (ie, tendency to overeat in response to food cues and emotions, respectively), and considers whether introduction of certain foods better predict toddler dietary self-regulation., Design: This study is a secondary analysis of data from a parent longitudinal birth cohort study on early growth/development among Hispanic mother-infant dyads., Participants/setting: The analytic sample included 174 mother-child dyads recruited from maternity clinics affiliated with the University of Southern California in Los Angeles County. Recruitment and data collection were ongoing from July 2016 to April 2020. At 1-, 6-, 12-, and 24-months postpartum, mothers reported exclusive breastfeeding duration and age of complementary food introduction via questionnaire., Main Outcome Measures: Child food responsiveness and emotional overeating scores calculated from the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire at 12 and 24 months of age., Statistical Analyses Performed: Separate linear mixed models with repeated measures were used to examine associations between age of complementary food introduction as a predictor of child food responsiveness or emotional overeating, controlling for infant sex, birth body mass index z score, duration of exclusive breastfeeding, and mother's body mass index., Results: In separate models, delaying complementary food introduction by 1 month was associated with a 6% reduction in food responsiveness (P = 0.007) and a 5% reduction in emotional overeating scores (P = 0.013). Fifty-eight unique combinations of complementary foods introduced first were found, precluding analyses to examine whether specific combinations were related to eating behavior outcomes due to sample size limitations., Conclusions: Earlier complementary feeding was associated with higher food responsiveness and emotional overeating scores among Hispanic children. Future studies in larger samples are needed to characterize patterns of complementary food introduction and their influence on child self-regulation., (Copyright © 2023 Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The objective of this narrative review was to synthesize the literature on human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) and neurodevelopmental outcomes in human milk-fed infants. We conducted a scoping review of the literature indexed in PubMed reporting observational or interventional studies on HMO exposure in relation to psychometric measures in infants. Studies were characterized based on study design and definitions of HMO exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes. Six studies were identified; all were observational in design, and five were conducted in full-term infants. Sample sizes ranged from 35-659 infants. HMOs were defined as individual concentrations or relative abundances assessed at 1 and/or 6 months of age. Studies accounted for differences in HMO exposure based on maternal secretor status. Neurodevelopmental outcomes were assessed between 6 and 24 months of age and included four domains. Studies in full-term infants reported that total and individual fucosylated and sialylated HMOs were positively associated with cognitive, language, and motor skill domains between 18 and 24 months of age, while the single study in preterm infants reported no statistically significant findings in the full cohort. The presence of a maternal secretor did not consistently alter the associations between HMO exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes. Emerging evidence from observational studies suggests that HMO exposure may be beneficial for neurodevelopment in infants.

Background: Our previous studies revealed that human-milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) have health benefits for nursing infants and their concentrations change dynamically over 24 mo of lactation. Yet, the extent to which HMOs vary over the short term (days) and in response to acute factors such as maternal diet is unclear., Objective: The purpose of this study was to determine the stability of HMO concentrations over 7 d and in response to a standard meal and sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) over 6 h., Methods: In this ancillary study, lactating mothers were enrolled at 6 wk postpartum. Participants received in-person instructions and materials to complete procedures at home. In the 1-wk experiment (n = 11), mothers pumped a milk sample at 07:00 h for 7 consecutive days. In the 6-h experiment (n = 35), mothers pumped a milk sample after an overnight fast at 06:00 h and then consumed a standard meal plus SSB provided by the study team. Mothers pumped a milk sample every hour for 6 consecutive hours. Samples were analyzed for the 19 most abundant HMOs. Repeated-measures ANOVA was used to test changes in HMO concentrations over time, reported as F(dftime, dferror) = F value, P value., Results: Concentrations of all assayed HMOs were stable over 7 consecutive days, including, for example, the most widely studied HMOs in relation to infant health: 2'-fucosyllactose (2'FL) [F(2,17) = 0.39, P = 0.65], disialyl-lacto-N-tetraose (DSLNT) [F(4, 37) = 0.60, P = 0.66], and lacto-N-neotetraose (LNnT) [F(3, 32) = 1.5, P = 0.23]. Concentrations of all assayed HMOs were stable in response to a standard meal plus SSB. For example, fasted baseline concentrations of 2'FL, DSLNT, and LNnT were 2310 ± 1620 μg/mL, 560 ± 290 μg/mL, and 630 ± 290 μg/mL, respectively, and there were no changes in 2'FL [F(4, 119) = 1.9, P = 0.13], DSLNT [F(4, 136) = 0.39, P = 0.83], and LNnT [F(4, 120) = 0.64, P = 0.63] over 6 consecutive hours., Conclusions: HMO concentrations are stable over 1 wk of lactation and are not acutely affected by a standard meal plus SSB in mothers., (© The Author(s) 2022. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society for Nutrition.)

Animal studies have shown that human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are important in early brain development, yet their roles have not been assessed in humans. The purpose of this study was to determine the associations of HMOs with MRI indices of tissue microstructure and regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in infants. Mother-infant pairs (N = 20) were recruited at 1 month postpartum. Milk was assayed for the concentrations of the HMOs 2'-fucosyllactose (2'FL), 3-fucosyllactose (3FL), 3'-sialyllactose (3'SL), and 6'-sialyllactose (6'SL). Diffusion and arterial spin labeling measures were acquired using a 3.0-Tesla MRI scanner. Multiple linear regression was used to assess the voxel-wise associations of HMOs with fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), and rCBF values across the brain. After adjusting for pre-pregnancy BMI, sex, birthweight, and postmenstrual age at time of scan, a higher 2'FL concentration was associated with reduced FA, increased MD, and reduced rCBF in similar locations within the cortical mantle. Higher 3FL and 3'SL concentrations were associated with increased FA, reduced MD, and increased rCBF in similar regions within the developing white matter. The concentration of 6'SL was not associated with MRI indices. Our data reveal that fucosylated and sialylated HMOs differentially associate with indices of tissue microstructure and rCBF, suggesting specific roles for 2'FL, 3FL, and 3'SL in early brain maturation.

Background: Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) among Latinos is partially attributed to a prevalent C>G polymorphism in the patatin-like phospholipase 3 (PNPLA3) gene. Cross-sectional analyses in Latino children showed the association between dietary sugar and liver fat was exacerbated by GG genotype. Pediatric feeding studies show extreme sugar restriction improves liver fat, but no prior trial has examined the impact of a clinical intervention or whether effects differ by PNPLA3 genotype., Objectives: We aimed to test effects of a clinical intervention to reduce dietary sugar compared with standard dietary advice on change in liver fat, and secondary-endpoint changes in liver fibrosis, liver enzymes, and anthropometrics; and whether effects differ by PNPLA3 genotype (assessed retrospectively) in Latino youth with obesity (BMI ≥ 95th percentile)., Methods: This parallel-design trial randomly assigned participants (n = 105; mean baseline liver fat: 12.7%; mean age: 14.8 y) to control or sugar reduction (goal of ≤10% of calories from free sugar) for 12 wk. Intervention participants met with a dietitian monthly and received delivery of bottled water. Changes in liver fat, by MRI, were assessed by intervention group via general linear models., Results: Mean free sugar intake decreased in intervention compared with control [11.5% to 7.3% compared with 13.9% to 10.7% (% energy), respectively; P = 0.02], but there were no significant effects on liver outcomes or anthropometrics (Pall > 0.10), and no PNPLA3 interactions (Pall > 0.10). In exploratory analyses, participants with whole-body fat mass (FM) reduction (mean ± SD: -1.9 ± 2.4 kg), irrespective of randomization, had significant reductions in liver fat compared with participants without FM reduction (median: -2.1%; IQR: -6.5% to -0.8% compared with 0.3%; IQR: -1.0% to 1.1%; P < 0.001)., Conclusions: In Latino youth with obesity, a dietitian-led sugar reduction intervention did not improve liver outcomes compared with control, regardless of PNPLA3 genotype. Results suggest FM reduction is important for liver fat reduction, confirming clinical recommendations of weight loss and a healthy diet for pediatric NAFLD.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02948647., (© The Author(s) 2022. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society for Nutrition.)

Background: Compared to the exhaustive study of transgenerational programming of obesity and diabetes through exposures in the prenatal period, postnatal programming mechanisms are understudied, including the potential role of breast milk composition linking maternal metabolic status (body mass index and diabetes) and offspring growth, metabolic health and future disease risk., Methods: This narrative review will principally focus on four emergent bioactive compounds [microRNA's (miRNA), lipokines/signalling lipids, small molecules/metabolites and fructose] that, until recently were not known to exist in breast milk. The objective of this narrative review is to integrate evidence across multiple fields of study that demonstrate the importance of these compositional elements of breast milk during lactation and the subsequent effect of breast milk components on the health of the infant., Results: Current knowledge on the presence of miRNA's, lipokines/signalling lipids, small molecules/metabolites and fructose in breast milk and their associations with infant outcomes is compelling, but far from resolved. Two themes emerge: (1) maternal metabolic phenotypes are associated with these bioactives and (2) though existing in milk at low concentrations, they are also associated with offspring growth and body composition., Conclusion: Breast milk research is gaining momentum though we must remain focused on understanding how non-nutritive bioactive components are affected by the maternal phenotype, how they subsequently impact infant outcomes. Though early, there is evidence to suggest fructose is associated with fat mass in the 1st months of life whereas 12,13 diHOME (brown fat activator) and betaine are negatively associated with early adiposity and growth., (© 2022 World Obesity Federation.)

Objectives: To develop and validate a prediction model for fat mass in infants ≤12 kg using easily accessible measurements such as weight and length., Study Design: We used data from a pooled cohort of 359 infants age 1-24 months and weighing 3-12 kg from 3 studies across Southern California and New York City. The training data set (75% of the cohort) included 269 infants and the testing data set (25% of the cohort) included 90 infants age 1-24 months. Quantitative magnetic resonance was used as the standard measure for fat mass. We used multivariable linear regression analysis, with backwards selection of predictor variables and fractional polynomials for nonlinear relationships to predict infant fat mass (from which lean mass can be estimated by subtracting resulting estimates from total mass) in the training data set. We used 5-fold cross-validation to examine overfitting and generalizability of the model's predictive performance. Finally, we tested the adjusted model on the testing data set., Results: The final model included weight, length, sex, and age, and had high predictive ability for fat mass with good calibration of observed and predicted values in the training data set (optimism-adjusted R 2 : 92.1%). Performance on the test dataset showed promising generalizability (adjusted R 2 : 85.4%). The mean difference between observed and predicted values in the testing dataset was 0.015 kg (-0.043 to -0.072 kg; 0.7% of the mean)., Conclusions: Our model accurately predicted infant fat mass and could be used to improve the accuracy of assessments of infant body composition for effective early identification, surveillance, prevention, and management of obesity and future chronic disease risk., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Few studies have investigated the influence of infant formulas made with added corn-syrup solids on the development of child eating behaviors. We examined associations of breastmilk (BM), traditional formula (TF), and formula containing corn-syrup solids (CSSF) with changes in eating behaviors over a period of 2 years. Feeding type was assessed at 6 months in 115 mother−infant pairs. Eating behaviors were assessed at 12, 18 and 24 months. Repeated Measures ANCOVA was used to determine changes in eating behaviors over time as a function of feeding type. Food fussiness and enjoyment of food differed between the feeding groups (p < 0.05) and changed over time for CSSF and TF (p < 0.01). Food fussiness increased from 12 to 18 and 12 to 24 months for CSSF and from 12 to 24 months for TF (p < 0.01), while it remained stable for BM. Enjoyment of food decreased from 12 to 24 months for CSSF (p < 0.01), while it remained stable for TF and BM. There was an interaction between feeding type and time for food fussiness and enjoyment of food (p < 0.01). Our findings suggest that Hispanic infants consuming CSSF may develop greater food fussiness and reduced enjoyment of food in the first 2 years of life compared to BM-fed infants.

Epidemiological studies in adults have shown that exposure to ambient air pollution (AAP) is associated with the composition of the adult gut microbiome, but these relationships have not been examined in infancy. We aimed to determine if 6-month postnatal AAP exposure was associated with the infant gut microbiota at 6 months of age in a cohort of Latino mother-infant dyads from the Southern California Mother's Milk Study (n = 103). We estimated particulate matter (PM 2.5 and PM 10 ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) exposure from birth to 6-months based on residential address histories. We characterized the infant gut microbiota using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing at 6-months of age. At 6-months, the gut microbiota was dominated by the phyla Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria. Our results show that, after adjusting for important confounders, postnatal AAP exposure was associated with the composition of the gut microbiota. As an example, PM 10 exposure was positively associated with Dialister, Dorea, Acinetobacter , and Campylobacter while PM 2.5 was positively associated with Actinomyces . Further, exposure to PM 10 and PM 2.5 was inversely associated with Alistipes and NO 2 exposure was positively associated with Actinomyces, Enterococcus, Clostridium , and Eubacterium . Several of these taxa have previously been linked with systemic inflammation, including the genera Dialister and Dorea . This study provides the first evidence of significant associations between exposure to AAP and the composition of the infant gut microbiota, which may have important implications for future infant health and development.

Micronutrients are dietary components important for health and physiological function, and inadequate intake of these nutrients can contribute to poor health outcomes. The risk of inadequate micronutrient intake has been shown to be greater among low-income Hispanics and postpartum and lactating women. Therefore, we aimed to determine the risk of nutrient inadequacies based on preliminary evidence among postpartum, Hispanic women. Risk of micronutrient inadequacy for Hispanic women (29-45 years of age) from the Southern California Mother's Milk Study ( n = 188) was assessed using 24 h dietary recalls at 1 and 6 months postpartum and the estimated average requirement (EAR) fixed cut-point approach. Women were considered at risk of inadequate intake for a nutrient if more than 50% of women were consuming below the EAR. The Chronic Disease Risk Reduction (CDRR) value was also used to assess sodium intake. These women were at risk of inadequate intake for folate and vitamins A, D, and E, with 87.0%, 93.4%, 43.8%, and 95% of women consuming less than the EAR for these nutrients, respectively. Lastly, 71.7% of women consumed excess sodium. Results from this preliminary analysis indicate that Hispanic women are at risk of inadequate intake of important micronutrients for maternal and child health.

Animal studies have shown that exposure to excess sugar during the prenatal and postnatal periods may alter early brain structure in rat pups. However, evidence in humans is lacking. The aim of this study was to determine associations of maternal total and added sugar intake in pregnancy with early brain tissue organization in infants. Adolescent mothers ( n = 41) were recruited during pregnancy and completed 24 h dietary recalls during the second trimester. Diffusion tensor imaging was performed on infants using a 3.0 Tesla Magnetic Resonance Imaging Scanner at 3 weeks. Maps of fractional anisotropy (FA) and mean diffusivity (MD) were constructed. A multiple linear regression was used to examine voxel-wise associations across the brain. Adjusting for postmenstrual age, sex, birth weight, and total energy intake revealed that maternal total and added sugar consumption were associated inversely and diffusely with infant MD values, not FA values. Inverse associations were distributed throughout all of the cortical mantle, including the posterior periphery (Bs = -6.78 to -0.57, Ps < 0.001) and frontal lobe (Bs = -4.72 to -0.77, Ps ≤ 0.002). Our findings suggest that maternal total and added sugar intake during the second trimester are significantly associated with features of brain tissue organization in infants, the foundation for future functional outcomes.

Background: Little is known about the normal eating time periods in adolescents with obesity and how these patterns change throughout development. As the obesity epidemic continues to rise in adolescence, it becomes imperative to understand developmentally appropriate eating behaviours and to create weight management strategies that build on those innate patterns and preferences. The purpose of this study was to determine the most common habitual eating windows observed in adolescents with obesity., Methods: Participants were 101 Hispanic adolescents (mean age 14.8 ± 2.1 years; 48 male/53 female) with obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) who were recruited as part of a larger clinical trial. Dietary intake and meal timing was determined using multiple pass 24-hours recalls. Histograms were utilized to determine the natural distribution of percent consumption of total kilocalories, carbohydrates and added sugar per hour., Results: The majority of total kilocalories (65.4%), carbohydrates (65.3%) and added sugar (59.1%) occurred between 11:00 and 19:00. Adolescents were 2.5 to 2.9 times more likely to consume kilocalories, carbohydrates, and added sugar during the 8-hour window between 11:00 am and 19:00 pm than other time windows examined (all P < .001). The consumption of these calories did not differ between weekdays and weekend (P > .05) or by sex., Conclusions: In this cohort, more than 60% of calories, carbohydrates and added sugar were consumed between 11:00 am and 19:00 pm, which is concordant with an afternoon/evening chronotype that is common in adolescents. Our findings support this 8-hour period as a practical window for weight loss interventions that target pre-specified eating periods in this population., (© 2020 World Obesity Federation.)

Background: Prior epidemiological and animal work has linked in utero exposure to ambient air pollutants (AAP) with accelerated postnatal weight gain, which is predictive of increased cardiometabolic risk factors in childhood and adolescence. However, few studies have assessed changes in infant body composition or multiple pollutant exposures. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine relationships between prenatal residential AAP exposure with infant growth and adiposity., Methods: Residential exposure to AAP (particulate matter < 2.5 and 10 microns in aerodynamic diameter [PM 2.5 , PM 10 ]; nitrogen dioxide [NO 2 ]; ozone [O 3 ]; oxidative capacity [O x wt : redox-weighted oxidative potential of O 3 and NO 2 ]) was modeled by spatial interpolation of monitoring stations via an inverse distance-squared weighting (IDW2) algorithm for 123 participants from the longitudinal Mother's Milk Study, an ongoing cohort of Hispanic mother-infant dyads from Southern California. Outcomes included changes in infant growth (weight, length), total subcutaneous fat (TSF; calculated via infant skinfold thickness measures) and fat distribution (umbilical circumference, central to total subcutaneous fat [CTSF]) and were calculated by subtracting 1-month measures from 6-month measures. Multivariable linear regression was performed to examine relationships between prenatal AAP exposure and infant outcomes. Models adjusted for maternal age, pre-pregnancy body mass index, socioeconomic status, infant age, sex, and breastfeeding frequency. Sex interactions were tested, and effects are reported for each standard deviation increase in exposure., Results: NO 2 was associated with greater infant weight gain (β = 0.14, p = 0.02) and TSF (β = 1.69, p = 0.02). PM 10 and PM 2.5 were associated with change in umbilical circumference (β = 0.73, p = 0.003) and TSF (β = 1.53, p = 0.04), respectively. Associations of O x wt (p interactions  < 0.10) with infant length change, umbilical circumference, and CTSF were modified by infant sex. O x wt was associated with attenuated infant length change among males (β = -0.60, p = 0.01), but not females (β = 0.16, p = 0.49); umbilical circumference among females (β = 0.92, p = 0.009), but not males (β = -0.00, p = 0.99); and CTSF among males (β = 0.01, p = 0.03), but not females (β = 0.00, p = 0.51)., Conclusion: Prenatal AAP exposure was associated with increased weight gain and anthropometric measures from 1-to-6 months of life among Hispanic infants. Sex-specific associations suggest differential consequences of in utero oxidative stress. These results indicate that prenatal AAP exposure may alter infant growth, which has potential to increase childhood obesity risk.

Background: Parents play a key role in shaping children's eating behaviours and self-regulation. There is limited data on how maternal weight influences feeding practices in the first year of life., Objective: To examine the relationships between maternal BMI, feeding practices and infant eating behaviours related to self-regulation., Methods: Participants were 160 mother-infant dyads. A longitudinal design was used to examine concurrent and prospective associations between maternal 6-month postpartum BMI, mothers' feeding practices at 6 months (Infant Feeding Practices Questionnaire) and children's eating behaviours at 6 months (Baby Eating Behaviour Questionnaire) and 12 months (Child Eating Behaviour Questionnaire)., Results: Higher maternal BMI was associated positively with mothers' use of restrictive feeding practices (β = 0.036, p = 0.033), and inversely with responsivity to infant satiety cues (Spearman partial r = -0.249, p = 0.002) at 6 months. Mother's restrictive feeding practices were associated with infant food responsiveness (β = 0.157, p = 0.009) and emotional overeating (β = 0.118, p = 0.005) at 12 months. Maternal use of responsive feeding practices was associated with lower infant food responsiveness at 6 months (Spearman partial r = -0.173, p = 0.031) and lower emotional overeating at 12 months (Spearman partial r = -0.183, p = 0.022)., Conclusions: Our findings add to studies suggesting that feeding practices can provide mechanistic pathways in the intergenerational transmission of obesity. Postpartum family-system approaches focusing on maternal health while integrating infant feeding guidance may confer benefits in improving maternal-child health., (© 2020 World Obesity Federation.)

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease impacts 15.2% of Hispanic adolescents and can progress to a build-up of scared tissue called liver fibrosis. If diagnosed early, liver fibrosis may be reversible, so it is necessary to understand risk factors. The aims of this study in 59 Hispanic adolescents with obesity were to: (1) identify potential biological predictors of liver fibrosis and dietary components that influence liver fibrosis, and (2) determine if the association between dietary components and liver fibrosis differs by PNPLA3 genotype, which is highly prevalent in Hispanic adolescents and associated with elevated liver fat. We examined liver fat and fibrosis, genotyped for PNPLA3 gene, and assessed diet via 24-h diet recalls. The prevalence of increased fibrosis was 20.9% greater in males, whereas participants with the GG genotype showed 23.7% greater prevalence. Arachidonic acid was associated with liver fibrosis after accounting for sex, genotype, and liver fat (β = 0.072, p = 0.033). Intakes of several dietary types of unsaturated fat have different associations with liver fibrosis by PNPLA3 genotype after accounting for sex, caloric intake, and liver fat. These included monounsaturated fat (β CC/CG = -0.0007, β GG = 0.03, p -value = 0.004), polyunsaturated fat (β CC/CG = -0.01, β GG = 0.02, p -value = 0.01), and omega-6 (β CC/CG = -0.0102, β GG = 0.028, p -value = 0.01). Results from this study suggest that reduction of arachidonic acid and polyunsaturated fatty acid intake might be important for the prevention of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease progression, especially among those with PNPLA3 risk alleles.

Background: Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are complex glycans that are highly abundant in human milk. While over 150 HMOs have been identified, it is unknown how individual HMOs change in concentration over 24 months of lactation., Objectives: To understand how HMO concentrations change over 24 months of lactation., Methods: Breast milk samples were collected from participants in a longitudinal cohort study of Hispanic mother-infant pairs at 1, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months postpartum. Concentrations of 19 of the most abundant HMOs were measured using HPLC. Because the parent study is ongoing and not all participants have finished all time points yet, the sample sizes ranged per time point (n = 207 at 1 month; n = 109 at 6 months; n = 83 at 12 months; n = 59 at 18 months; and n = 28 at 24 months). Approximately 88% of participants were classified as HMO secretors-a genetic factor that affects concentrations of HMOs such as 2'fucosyllactose (2'FL) and lacto-N-fucopentaose I-while the remaining 12% were classified as nonsecretors. Mixed models were used to examine changes in HMO concentrations and relative abundances over the course of lactation., Results: The majority of HMOs significantly decreased in concentration over the course of lactation. The exceptions were 2'FL, sialyl-lacto-N-tetraose b, and disialyl-lacto-N-tetraose, which did not change with time, and 3-fucosyllactose (3FL) and 3'-sialyllactose (3'SL), which significantly increased. The concentration of 3FL increased 10-fold, from 195 (IQR 138-415) μg/mL at 1 month to 1930 (1100-2630) μg/mL at 24 months, while 3'SL increased 2-fold, from 277 (198-377) μg/mL to 568 (448-708) μg/mL over the same time period., Conclusions: These results indicate that HMOs do not decrease in concentration uniformly across lactation. In particular, 3FL and 3'SL increased over the course of lactation in this cohort. Future studies are required to fully understand the functions of these HMOs., (© The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society for Nutrition.)

There is a high prevalence of obesity and type 2 diabetes in the United States, particularly among Hispanic women, which may be partly explained by failure to lose gestational weight during the postpartum period. Previous work indicates that protein and amino acids may protect against weight gain; therefore, this study examined the impact of dietary protein and amino acid intake on changes in postpartum weight and the percent of women meeting the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) for these dietary variables among Hispanic women from the Southern California Mother's Milk Study ( n  = 99). Multivariable linear regression analysis was used to examine the associations between protein and amino acid intake with change in weight after adjusting for maternal age, height, and energy intake. Women's weight increased from prepregnancy to 1-month and 6-months postpartum (71.1 ± 14.6 vs. 73.1 ± 13.1 vs. 74.5 ± 14.6 kg, p  < .0001). Although dietary protein was not associated with weight change ( β  = -1.09; p  = .13), phenylalanine ( β  = -1.46; p  = .04), tryptophan ( β  = -1.71; p  = .009), valine ( β  = -1.34; p  = .04), isoleucine ( β  = -1.26; p  = .045), and cysteine ( β  = -1.52; p  = .02) intake were inversely associated with weight change. Additionally, fewer women met the EAR values for cysteine (11.1%), phenylalanine (60.6%), and methionine (69.7%), whereas most women met the EAR values for tryptophan (92.9%), valine (96.0%), and isoleucine (94.9%). Study results indicate that several essential and conditionally essential amino acids were associated with postpartum weight loss, with a significant portion of women not meeting recommended intake levels for some of these amino acids. These results highlight the importance of postpartum maternal diet as a potential modifiable risk factor., Competing Interests: MIG receives book royalties from Penguin/Avery and is a scientific consultant for YUMI foods., (© 2021 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

We aimed to determine if the newborn gut microbiota is an underlying determinant of early life growth trajectories. 132 Hispanic infants were recruited at 1-month postpartum. The infant gut microbiome was characterized using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Rapid infant growth was defined as a weight-for-age z-score (WAZ) change greater than 0.67 between birth and 12-months of age. Measures of infant growth included change in WAZ, weight-for-length z-score (WLZ), and body mass index (BMI) z-scores from birth to 12-months and infant anthropometrics at 12-months (weight, skinfold thickness). Of the 132 infants, 40% had rapid growth in the first year of life. Multiple metrics of alpha-diversity predicted rapid infant growth, including a higher Shannon diversity (OR = 1.83; 95% CI: 1.07-3.29; p = .03), Faith's phylogenic diversity (OR = 1.41, 95% CI: 1.05-1.94; p = .03), and richness (OR = 1.04, 95% CI: 1.01-1.08; p = .02). Many of these alpha-diversity metrics were also positively associated with increases in WAZ, WLZ, and BMI z-scores from birth to 12-months (p all <0.05). Importantly, we identified subsets of microbial consortia whose abundance were correlated with these same measures of infant growth. We also found that rapid growers were enriched in multiple taxa belonging to genera such as Acinetobacter, Collinsella, Enterococcus, Neisseria , and Parabacteroides . Moreover, measures of the newborn gut microbiota explained up to an additional 5% of the variance in rapid growth beyond known clinical predictors (R 2  = 0.37 vs. 0.32, p < .01). These findings indicate that a more mature gut microbiota, characterized by increased alpha-diversity, at as early as 1-month of age, may influence infant growth trajectories in the first year of life.

Background: Our prior studies revealed that infant somatic growth is influenced by fructose in breast milk, and fructose in breast milk is increased in response to maternal sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intake in lactation. It is unknown whether infant neurodevelopmental outcomes are also influenced by maternal SSBs in lactation., Objectives: To determine whether infant cognitive development at 24 postnatal months was influenced by maternal fructose consumption during lactation, and whether this relation persisted after accounting for maternal SSB and juice (SSB + J) intake., Methods: Hispanic mother-infant pairs (n = 88) were recruited across the spectrum of prepregnancy BMI. Mothers completed two 24-h dietary recalls at 1 and 6 postnatal months, and reported breastfeedings per day. The Bayley-III Scales of Infant Development were administered at 24 postnatal months to assess infant cognition. Linear regressions were used to examine associations, reported as unstandardized (B) coefficients, 95% CIs, and P values., Results: Mothers consumed 1656 ± 470 kcal, 21.8 ± 12 g fructose, and 2.5 ± 2.6 servings SSBs + J, and reported 6.9 ± 2.1 breastfeedings per day at 1 postnatal month. Controlling for maternal age, prepregnancy BMI, education level, kilocalories, infant age, sex, and birthweight revealed that infant cognitive development scores at 24 postnatal months correlated inversely with maternal fructose consumption at 1 postnatal month (B = -0.08; 95% CI = -0.13, -0.03; P < 0.01). The association of infant cognitive development scores with maternal fructose consumption was no longer significant after adjustment for maternal SSB + J intake (B = -0.05; 95% CI = -0.10, 0.00; P = 0.07), whereas maternal SSB + J intake was significant in the same model (B = -0.29; 95% CI = -0.52, -0.05; P = 0.02). Infant cognitive development scores were not associated with maternal fructose and SSB + J consumption at 6 postnatal months., Conclusions: Our findings suggest that infant neurodevelopmental outcomes at 24 postnatal months can be adversely influenced by maternal fructose intake in early lactation, and this could be attributed to maternal SSB + J intake., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society for Nutrition.)

Background: Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are naturally occurring glycans in human breast milk that act as prebiotics in the infant gut. Prebiotics have been demonstrated to suppress appetite in both adults and children. Therefore, HMOs may affect infant eating behaviour., Objective: To determine if HMOs in breast milk are associated with eating behaviour in Hispanic infants., Methods: Cross-sectional analysis of a prospective cohort of Hispanic mother-infant dyads (1-month, n = 157; 6-months, n = 69). Breast milk samples were screened for 19 HMOs using high pressure liquid chromatography, and eating behaviour was assessed using the Baby Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (BEBQ). We conducted multiple linear regressions to examine associations between HMOs and BEBQ scores, adjusted for maternal pre-pregnancy BMI, infant sex, birthweight, delivery mode and number of breastfeedings per day. We stratified by HMO secretor status-a genetic determinant of the types of HMOs produced., Results: At 1 month, LNnT (lacto-N-neotetraose; P = .04) was negatively associated with food responsiveness in the total sample, while DFLNT (difucosyllacto-N-tetrose; P = .03) and DSLNT (disialyl-LNT; P = .04) were negatively associated with food responsiveness in secretors only. At 6 months, LSTc (sialyllacto-N-tetraose c; P = .01), FLNH (fucosyllacto-N-hexaose; P = .03), LNH (lacto-N-hexaose; P = .006) and DSLNH (disialyllacto-N-hexaose; P = .05) were positively associated with food responsiveness in both the total sample and secretors only., Conclusions: We found several HMOs that were both positively and negatively associated with infant food responsiveness, which is a measure of drive to eat., (© 2020 World Obesity Federation.)

Infant formula feeding, compared with human milk, has been associated with development of a distinct infant gut microbiome, but no previous study has examined effects of formula with added sugars. This work examined differences in gut microbiota among 91 Hispanic infants who consumed human milk [at breast (BB) vs. pumped in bottle (BP)] and 2 kinds of infant formula [(traditional lactose-based (TF) vs. lactose-reduced with added sugar (ASF)]. At 1 and 6 months, infant stool was collected to characterize gut microbiota. At 6 months, mothers completed 24-hour dietary recalls and questionnaires to determine infant consumption of human milk (BB vs. BP) or formula (TF vs. ASF). Linear regression models were used to determine associations of milk consumption type and microbial features at 6 months. Infants in the formula groups exhibited a significantly more 'mature' microbiome than infants in the human milk groups with the most pronounced differences observed between the ASF vs. BB groups. In the ASF group, we observed reduced log-normalized abundance of Bifidobacteriaceae (TF-BB Mean Difference = -0.71, ASF-BB Mean Difference = -1.10), and increased abundance of Lachnospiraceae (TF-BB Mean Difference = +0.89, ASF-BB Mean Difference = +1.20). We also observed a higher Community Phenotype Index of propionate, most likely produced by Lachnospiraceae , in the ASF group (TF-BB Mean Difference = +0.27, ASF-BB Mean Difference = +0.36). This study provides the first evidence that consumption of infant formula with added sugar may have a stronger association than birth delivery mode, infant caloric intake, and maternal BMI on the infant's microbiome at 6 months of age.

Background: Obesity prevalence remains high in the United States, and there is an increased risk among women who do not lose their gestational weight gain during the postpartum period. Indicators of dietary carbohydrate quality including added sugar consumption, glycemic load, and glycemic index have been linked with weight gain, whereas fiber may protect against obesity. However, these dietary factors have not been examined during the postpartum period., Objectives: The aim of this study was to determine whether dietary sugars and fiber intake were associated with changes in postpartum weight., Methods: We examined Hispanic women from the longitudinal Southern California Mother's Milk Study (n = 99) at 1 and 6 mo postpartum. Maternal assessments included height, weight, and dietary intake based on 24-h diet recalls. We used multivariable linear regression to examine the relation between maternal diet and change in postpartum weight after adjusting for maternal age, height, and energy intake., Results: Higher intake of added sugar was associated with postpartum weight gain (β: 0.05; 95% CI: 0.004, 0.10; P = 0.05). In addition, a half 8-ounce (8 fluid ounces = 236.6 mL) serving per day increase in soft drinks was associated with a 1.52-kg increase in weight (95% CI: 0.70, 2.34 kg; P < 0.001). A high glycemic index (β: 0.25; 95% CI: 0.07, 0.42; P = 0.006) and glycemic load (β: 0.04; 95% CI: 0.002, 0.08; P = 0.04) were associated with postpartum weight gain. Higher soluble fiber was associated with a decrease in postpartum weight (β: -0.82 kg; 95% CI: -1.35, -0.29 kg; P = 0.003) and the negative effects of added sugar, sugary beverages, and high-glycemic-index and -load diets were partially attenuated after adjusting for soluble fiber intake., Conclusions: Increased consumption of added sugar, sugar-sweetened beverages, and high-glycemic diets were associated with greater weight gain in the first 6 mo postpartum. In addition, increased consumption of soluble fiber was associated with postpartum weight loss, which may partially offset the obesogenic effects of some dietary sugars., (Copyright © The Author(s) on behalf of the American Society for Nutrition 2020.)

Objective: The aim of this study was to determine whether human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) at 1 month predicted infant weight gain at 6 months and whether associations varied by HMO secretor status., Methods: Participants were 157 Hispanic mother-infant pairs. Human milk samples were collected at 1 month. Nineteen individual HMOs were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography, and secretor status was determined by the presence of 2'-fucosyllactose or lacto-N-fucopentaose (LNFP) I. Infant weight was measured at 1 and 6 months. Path analysis was used to test effects of HMO composition on infant weight gain, adjusting for maternal age, prepregnancy BMI, and infant age, sex, and birth weight., Results: In the total sample, higher LNFPII predicted lower infant weight gain (g 1  = -4.1, P = 0.004); this was observed in both nonsecretor (g 1  = -3.0, P = 0.006) and secretor groups (g 1  = -4.7, P = 0.014). In the nonsecretor group, higher lacto-N-neotetraose (g 1  = 7.6, P = 0.011) and disialyllacto-N-tetraose (g 1  = 14.3, P = 0.002) predicted higher infant weight gain. There were no other associations in the secretor group., Conclusions: Our data suggest that higher LNFPII in human milk may decrease obesity risk across all infants, whereas higher lacto-N-neotetraose and disialyllacto-N-tetraose may increase obesity risk in infants of nonsecretors only., (© 2020 The Obesity Society.)

Purpose of Review: This narrative review presents the current state of available evidence regarding the role of breast milk carbohydrates on infant outcomes, with a primary focus on growth and body composition., Recent Findings: To date, there is a paucity of available data that exists in this realm. The current literature focuses on the role of two carbohydrate fractions in breast milk, and their relationships with infant outcomes in the first six months of life: oligosaccharides and fructose. A small but growing body of research indicates robust associations of both oligosaccharides and fructose in breast milk with infant weight and length, as well as bone, fat, and lean mass. There is also emerging evidence to support the role of these same carbohydrate fractions in breast milk in infant cognitive development., Summary: The present state of the science suggests that oligosaccharides and fructose in breast milk play a role in infant growth and body composition and introduces intriguing associations of these two carbohydrate fractions with infant cognitive development as well.

Background: Infant cognitive development is influenced by maternal factors that range from obesity to early feeding and breast milk composition. Animal studies suggest a role for human milk oligosaccharide (HMO), 2'-fucosyllactose (2'FL), on learning and memory, yet no human studies have examined its impact on infant cognitive development relative to other HMOs and maternal factors., Objective: To determine the impact of 2'FL from breast milk feeding on infant cognitive development at 24 months of age relative to maternal obesity and breast milk feeding frequency., Methods and Materials: Hispanic mother-infant pairs (N = 50) were recruited across the spectrum of pre-pregnancy BMI. Breast milk was collected at 1 and 6 months, and feedings/day were reported. Nineteen HMOs were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography, with initial interest in 2'FL. Infant cognitive development score was assessed with the Bayley-III Scale at 24 months. Linear regressions were used for prediction, and bootstrapping to determine mediation by 2'FL., Results: Maternal pre-pregnancy BMI was not related to feedings/day or HMOs, but predicted poorer infant cognitive development (β = -0.31, P = 0.03). Feedings/day (β = 0.34) and 2'FL (β = 0.59) at 1 month predicted better infant cognitive development (both P≤ 0.01). The association of feedings/day with infant cognitive development was no longer significant after further adjustment for 2'FL (estimated mediation effect = 0.13, P = 0.04). There were no associations of feedings/day and 2'FL at 6 months with infant cognitive development., Conclusions: Our findings suggest that maternal factors influence infant cognitive development through multiple means. Though maternal obesity may be a separate negative influence, greater frequency of breast milk feeding at 1 month contributed to infant cognitive development through greater exposure to 2'FL relative to other HMOs. The influence of 2'FL was not significant at 6 months, indicating that early exposure to 2'FL may be a critical temporal window for positively influencing infant cognitive development., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Background: It is unknown to what extent higher maternal blood pressure (BP) in early postpartum impacts the relationship between higher maternal weight status and greater infant weight gain in early postpartum., Objective: To evaluate the mediating role of higher maternal BP at 1 month postpartum on the association between higher maternal weight status at 1 month postpartum and greater infant weight gain over 6 months postpartum., Methods: Participants were 169 Hispanic mother-infant pairs. Maternal body mass index (BMI) and BP were assessed at 1 month postpartum. Infant weight was measured at 1 and 6 months postpartum to calculate weight-for-age z scores (WAZ). Multiple linear regression models were used for prediction, and Sobel test was used to determine mediation., Results: Controlling for maternal pre-pregnancy BMI, age, delivery mode, infant sex, and infant birth weight revealed that both maternal BMI (β = .29) and BP (β = .32) predicted infant WAZ gain (both P ≤ .03). However, the relationship between infant WAZ gain and maternal BMI was no longer significant after further adjustment for maternal BP, which remained significant (P < .05). Maternal BP explained 23.6% (Sobel T = 2.01) of the association between maternal BMI at 1 month and infant WAZ gain over 6 months., Conclusion: Our data suggest that higher maternal weight status at 1 month postpartum is related to greater infant weight gain over 6 months postpartum, and this relationship is mediated by higher maternal BP at 1 month postpartum., (© 2019 World Obesity Federation.)

This study determined the effects of consuming a high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)-sweetened beverage on breast milk fructose, glucose, and lactose concentrations in lactating women. At six weeks postpartum, lactating mothers ( n = 41) were randomized to a crossover study to consume a commercially available HFCS-sweetened beverage or artificially sweetened control beverage. At each session, mothers pumped a complete breast milk expression every hour for six consecutive hours. The baseline fasting concentrations of breast milk fructose, glucose, and lactose were 5.0 ± 1.3 µg/mL, 0.6 ± 0.3 mg/mL, and 6.8 ± 1.6 g/dL, respectively. The changes over time in breast milk sugars were significant only for fructose (treatment × time, p < 0.01). Post hoc comparisons showed the HFCS-sweetened beverage vs. control beverage increased breast milk fructose at 120 min (8.8 ± 2.1 vs. 5.3 ± 1.9 µg/mL), 180 min (9.4 ± 1.9 vs. 5.2 ± 2.2 µg/mL), 240 min (7.8 ± 1.7 vs. 5.1 ± 1.9 µg/mL), and 300 min (6.9 ± 1.4 vs. 4.9 ± 1.9 µg/mL) (all p < 0.05). The mean incremental area under the curve for breast milk fructose was also different between treatments (14.7 ± 1.2 vs. -2.60 ± 1.2 µg/mL × 360 min, p < 0.01). There was no treatment × time interaction for breast milk glucose or lactose. Our data suggest that the consumption of an HFCS-sweetened beverage increased breast milk fructose concentrations, which remained elevated up to five hours post-consumption.

Background: Previous RCTs to prevent early rapid weight gain were conducted in predominantly White, well-educated, middle-income mother-infants at low risk for obesity. To inform the design of an RCT in a higher-risk sample, we conducted a short-term, longitudinal study to compare maternal feeding beliefs and behaviors, infant sleep, intake, and growth of African American formula feeding (AAFF) dyads to a comparison sample of White breastfeeding (WBF) dyads. We also assessed the feasibility of recruiting and retaining AAFF participants., Methods: AAFF ( n  = 32) and WBF ( n  = 25) mother-infants were assessed at 2, 8, and 16 weeks postpartum. Data included demographics and maternal reports of feeding beliefs and behaviors, infant sleep, meal size, and feeding frequency, and measured infant length and weight., Results: AAFF and WBF mothers differed in demographics. AAFF mothers reported greater agreement with pressuring the infant to eat and feeding to soothe a fussy infant. Compared to WBF infants, AAFF infants slept fewer hours and consumed more grams/feeding from 2 to 16 weeks. There were no group differences in feeding frequency, which resulted in AAFF infants consuming more grams/day of milk than WBF infants. AAFF infants had lower gestational age, lower weight at 2 weeks, and had more rapid weight gain from 8 to 16 weeks., Conclusions: Findings point to potentially modifiable risk factors that may underlie disparities in early obesity among AAFF infants, including short sleep duration, feeding beliefs and behaviors, and rapid growth, but also confirm the challenges of recruiting and retaining AAFF participants, all of which inform the design and feasibility of an early preventive intervention., Trial Registration: Retrospectively registered in clinicaltrials.gov on August 23, 2016 (2013102510).

Objective: This paper reviews the state of the science on psychological and neural contributions to appetite self-regulation in the context of obesity., Methods: Three content areas (neural systems and cognitive functions; parenting and early childhood development; and goal setting and goal striving) served to illustrate different perspectives on the psychological and neural factors that contribute to appetite dysregulation in the context of obesity. Talks were initially delivered at an NIH workshop consisting of experts in these three content areas, and then content areas were further developed through a review of the literature., Results: Self-regulation of appetite involves a complex interaction between multiple domains, including cognitive, neural, social, and goal-directed behaviors and decision-making. Self-regulation failures can arise from any of these factors, and the resulting implications for obesity should be considered in light of each domain. In some cases, self-regulation is amenable to intervention; however, this does not appear to be universally true, which has implications for both prevention and intervention efforts., Conclusions: Appetite regulation is a complex, multifactorial construct. When considering its role in the obesity epidemic, it is advisable to consider its various dimensions together to best inform prevention and treatment efforts., (© 2017 The Obesity Society.)

Background: Picky eating has been associated with lower weight status and limited food intake and variety in childhood. Little is known about how the persistence of picky eating in childhood is associated with changes in weight and food intake from childhood into adolescence., Objective: We determined whether picky eating identified in childhood was related to growth, nutrition, and parental use of pressure over a 10-y period., Design: Non-Hispanic white girls (n = 181) participated in a longitudinal study and were assessed biannually from ages 5 to 15 y. The Child Feeding Questionnaire was used to classify girls as persistent picky eaters or nonpicky eaters and to assess parental use of pressure to eat. Height and weight were measured to calculate body mass index (BMI) z scores at each occasion. Three 24-h dietary recalls obtained at each occasion were used to determine intakes of fruit and vegetables. With the use of repeated-measures analyses, differences between persistent picky eaters and nonpicky eaters in BMI z scores, dietary intake, and use of pressure were examined., Results: From ages 5 to 15 y, persistent picky eaters (n = 33; 18%) had lower BMI (tracking at the 50th percentile) than did nonpicky eaters (n = 148; tracking at the 65th percentile) (P = 0.02). Persistent picky eaters were less likely to be overweight into adolescence. Both groups consumed less than the recommended amounts of fruit and vegetables, although persistent picky eaters had lower intakes of vegetables than did nonpicky eaters at all time points (P = 0.02). Persistent picky eaters also received higher amounts of pressure (P = 0.01)., Conclusions: Findings that persistent picky eaters were within the normal weight range, were less likely to be overweight, and had similar fruit intakes to those of nonpicky eaters suggest that higher parental concerns about persistent picky eaters are unwarranted. All parents and children could benefit from evidence-based anticipatory guidance on alternatives to coercive feeding practices to increase fruit and vegetable consumption., (© 2016 American Society for Nutrition.)

Background: Data have shown that healthy children and adolescents have an inadequate intake of zinc, an essential nutrient for growth. It is unclear whether zinc supplementation can enhance bone health during this rapid period of growth and development., Objective: The primary aim of this study was to determine the effect of zinc supplementation on biochemical markers of bone turnover and growth in girls entering the early stages of puberty. The secondary aim was to test moderation by race, body mass index (BMI) classification, and plasma zinc status at baseline., Methods: One hundred forty seven girls aged 9-11 y (46% black) were randomly assigned to a daily oral zinc tablet (9 mg elemental zinc; n = 75) or an identical placebo (n = 72) for 4 wk. Fasting plasma zinc, procollagen type 1 amino-terminal propeptide (P1NP; a bone formation marker), carboxy-terminal telopeptide region of type 1 collagen (ICTP; a bone resorption marker), and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) were assessed at baseline and post-test. Additional markers of bone formation (osteocalcin) and resorption (urinary pyridinoline and deoxypyridinoline) were also measured., Results: Four weeks of zinc supplementation increased plasma zinc concentrations compared with placebo [mean change, 1.8 μmol/L (95% CI: 1.0, 2.6) compared with 0.2 μmol/L (95% CI: -0.3, 0.7); P < 0.01]. Zinc supplementation also increased serum P1NP concentrations compared with placebo [mean change, 23.8 μmol/L (95% CI: -14.9, 62.5) compared with -31.0 μmol/L (95% CI: -66.4, 4.2); P = 0.04). There was no effect from zinc supplementation on osteocalcin, ICTP, pyridinoline, deoxypyridinoline, or IGF-I. There was no moderation by race, BMI classification, or plasma zinc status at baseline., Conclusions: Our data suggest that 4 wk of zinc supplementation increases bone formation in premenarcheal girls. Further studies are needed to determine whether supplemental zinc can improve childhood bone strength. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01892098., (© 2015 American Society for Nutrition.)

Context: Although animal studies suggest that adenovirus 36 (Ad36) infection is linked to obesity and systemic inflammation, human data are scant and equivocal., Objective: Associations of Ad36 infection with total body adiposity and inflammatory-related markers were determined in 291 children aged 9-13 years (50% female, 49% black)., Design: Fasting blood samples were measured for presence of Ad36-specific antibodies and TNF-α, IL-6, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). Fat mass and fat-free soft tissue mass were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry., Results: The overall prevalence of Ad36 seropositivity [Ad36(+)] was 42%. There was a higher percentage of Ad36(+) children in the highest tertiles of TNF-α and IL-6 compared with their respective middle and lowest tertiles (both P < .03). There was also a trend toward a higher prevalence of Ad36(+) children in the highest tertile of VEGF compared with tertiles 1 and 2 (P = .05). Multinomial logistic regression, adjusting for age, race, sex, and fat-free soft tissue mass, revealed that compared with children with the lowest TNF-α, IL-6, and VEGF levels (tertile 1), the adjusted odds ratios for Ad36(+) were 2.2 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2-4.0], 2.4 (95% CI 1.4-4.0), and 1.8 (95% CI 1.0-3.3), respectively, for those in the highest TNF-α, IL-6, and VEGF levels (tertile 3). No association was observed between Ad36(+) and greater levels of fat mass or MCP-1 (all P > .05)., Conclusions: In children, our data suggest that Ad36(+) may be associated with biomarkers implicated in inflammation but not with greater levels of fat mass.

Human clinical trials targeted at preventing gains in body weight using soy protein and isoflavones are limited to adults and yield conflicting results. We hypothesized that daily intake of soy protein/isoflavones would attenuate gains in body weight to a greater extent than a casein-based control in 18 to 19 year-old females. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial over 16 weeks to examine the effects of a soy protein/isoflavone-based meal replacement (experimental group) versus a casein-based meal replacement (control group) on body weight and body composition variables in female college freshmen (N = 120). Fat mass (FM), fat-free soft tissue mass (FFST), and percent body fat (%BF) were measured using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA; Delphi A). Repeated measures mixed models were used to determine the effects of treatment on anthropometric and body composition variables (body weight, waist circumference, FM, FFST, and %BF). No significant group×time interactions were observed, even when body mass index was controlled for in the analysis. Over 16 weeks, body weight, FM, FFST, and %BF significantly increased in both groups (P < .05). Our findings show that female college freshmen gained a significant amount of weight over the course of the 16-week study. Gains in body weight and FM were similar among participants assigned to the soy protein/isoflavone- and the casein-based meal replacements. Future research is warranted to determine the effects of soy protein/isoflavone- and casein-based meal replacements versus a non-intervention (i.e., non-protein based) control., (© 2013.)

The seven sectors of the rat's serratus anterior (SA) muscle are innervated topographically by motor neurons of spinal cord segments C6 and C7 whose axons travel in the long thoracic (LT) nerve. That pattern is roughly mapped early in development and gains its final precision postnatally. The segmentotopic pattern is reestablished better in neonates than adults after cutting the LT nerve. We examined the process of reinnervation to see whether segmental selectivity is reestablished at the outset or whether it arises by rearrangement of the regenerated axons. Recordings were made from muscle fibers 1 to 70 days following a cryogenic lesion of the LT nerve done within 48 h of birth, as well as from sham-operated and unoperated control rats. Reinnervation of all sectors of SA occurred within a week after freezing the nerve. Reinnervation by C6 and C7 motor neurons was topographically selective though not quite to the degree found in controls. The precision observed during the first week of reinnervation did not improve over the next 9 weeks. Thus, selectivity exists from the start rather than being a more random reinnervation subsequently sharpened by elimination of inappropriate connections. The number of muscle fibers innervated by both C6 plus C7 motor neurons was greater after reinnervation than in controls. There was a significant decrease in the percentage of these dually innervated fibers over the initial few weeks of reinnervation but there was no difference among the reinnervated sectors of SA. Reinnervation of SA under optimal conditions resembles normal development in that there is a degree of topographic selectivity of (re)innervation that is present even at the earliest time periods studied. Unlike normal development the topographic selectivity after neonatal reinnervation does not improve over time, and fibers receiving a dual segmental innervation are not preferentially located in sectors where there is the most overlap in segmental projection.

Previous studies have shown that the phrenic motor nucleus in the rat projects onto the diaphragm muscle, forming an orderly topographic map. Moreover, this topography is partially restored upon reinnervation. This orderly map is expressed prior to birth, suggesting that early contacts between nerve and muscle are topographically appropriate. The phrenic divides during embryonic development into rostral and caudal branches, and motor axons preferentially enter the appropriate branch. In an effort to understand the mechanisms that underlie the choices growing phrenic neurons make in selecting their appropriate muscle targets, we examined the patterns of branching displayed by the phrenic nerve during development and reinnervation. In all muscles studied the phrenic nerve splits into three primary branches, rostral, caudal, and crural. At a coarse level the pattern of branching of the phrenic is remarkably consistent from animal to animal and at all ages of development. At a finer level of resolution, however, there is an asymmetry between right and left hemidiaphragms. Moreover, the precise emergence of any particular branch is unpredictable, resulting in an overall incongruence in branching architecture from animal to animal. The hemidiaphragm muscle grows unevenly, particularly on the right side, resulting in greater muscle fiber elongation medially. Upon reinnervation, the same coarse pattern of branching is reestablished, but the higher order pattern is much simpler and muscle growth is slower than in controls. These results suggest that very early in development primary branches of the phrenic funnel axons into three well-defined zones in the muscle.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Retranslation of expectations technique was used to develop behaviorally-anchored scales for evaluating the performance effectiveness of expanded function dental auxiliaries (EFDAs) working in extended dental health teams. The resulting instrument focuses on the evaluator's judgment of specific acts in eight dimensions of performance.

In an effort to further understand the antecedents of psychological stress, this study tested two competing stress formulations. One formulation, called the traditional model, proposes that stress is a multiplicative function of perceived consequences and the degree of disparity between perceived demand and perceived ability. Given high consequences, stress is presumed to reach its maximum when demand is substantially greater than ability (overload) or when ability is substantially greater than demand (underload). The other formulation, the revised model, proposes that stress is a multiplicative function of perceived consequences and the degree of correspondence between perceived demand and perceived ability. Stress is presumed to reach its maximum when high consequences are combined with a close match between demand and ability resulting in high uncertainty. The formulations were tested in a naturally occurring stress setting, a classroom which required students to give class presentations. The results offered substantial support for the proposition that overload situations are stress inducing, no support for the traditional model's position that overload and underload conditions are equally stressing, and no support for the revised model. Also, stress varied independently of perceived consequences. Several methodological issues were discussed, including a crucial one questioning the use of absolute levels of discrepancy rather than signed levels of discrepancy between perceived ability and demand in the models.

Much of the research on attitudes toward utilizing EDDAs has been rather haphazard in its measurement aspects. Examining responses to single items or summing across a series of items without any empirical rationale for such summing cannot be justified given current knowledge about measuring attitudes. The scales developed here are appreciably better from a psychometric point of view than scales reported in the dental literature to date. The use of standardized measuring instruments would facilitate cross-study comparisons. Such a process is presently not feasible because each researcher is using his own idiosyncratic scales of unknown psychometric characteristics. The three scales developed here to measure (1) the value of expanding auxiliary functions, (2) patient reaction to the use of EDDAs, and (3) satisfaction with changed dentist role may permit more standardized measurement of at least some aspects of provider and future provider attitudes toward the utilization of expanded duty dental auxiliaries.

Retranslations of expectations technique was used to develop behaviorally anchored scales for evaluating dentists' utilization of expanded duty dental auxiliaries. To enhance the reliability and validity of such instruments the project focused on specific acts and decisions of the dentist which are either effective or ineffective in accomplishing the health team's tasks.