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An overview is presented on reciprocity between parents and children during the early modern period in England. Parents were found to make a significantly larger investment, with less certain returns, than children. Reciprocal exchanges involved both material and emotional goods, including support and affection.

Sociologist Philippe Aries published 'Centuries of Childhood' in which he pointed out that modern western culture had given rise to the period of adolescence which was lacking in traditional cultures. Aries reported that children easily moved into adulthood in pre-industrial times, since they were needed to contribute to the community and were thus inducted into adulthood as soon as they reached a certain age. Aries proceeded to criticize the importance given to educating adolescents which fostered rebelliousness and a lack of emphasis on their future roles in society.