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Every summer, free-roaming sheep graze large parts of Icelandic rangeland ecosystems, even though some of these rangeland areas are estimated to be in a severely eroded or even collapsed ecological condition. Improved rangeland management and ecosystem restoration of severely degraded rangelands have been designated as official agricultural and environmental policy tasks of the Icelandic government for the last decades. Several new agri-environmental programs and projects have been established since 1990, with the aim of maintaining and improving the ecological condition of rangeland ecosystem and to facilitate behavioral changes among sheep farmers in relation to sustainable rangeland management. Nevertheless, little is known about the overall long-term progress of these activities and their processes and outcomes have never been studied in an interdisciplinary manner. The main aim of this thesis was to carry out research on rangeland management and restoration in Iceland by examining, through a social-ecological lens, if the expected long-term progress of identified policy goals and all related programs and projects has been achieved. The first step of the research was to do a historical analysis on the main drivers of ecological restoration in Iceland during the last century and map if the drivers had changed over time. That study was based on a catalogue of 100 restoration programs, projects and areas of restoration activity (75-85% of all restoration activities in Iceland). The second step included an investigation of the SES surrounding rangeland restoration in Iceland to assess whether social factors, such as stakeholders´ attitude and behavior, influenced the effectiveness of agricultural and environmental policies related to rangeland restoration and improved rangeland management. That study was based on qualitative research, where 15 stakeholders were interviewed. The third step was to examine if a large-scale rangeland restoration program had facilitated expected attitudinal and behavioral changes among the sheep farmers who participated in the program. This step was based on a questionnaire where sheep farmers were asked about their attitude and behavior in relation to rangeland restoration and land management and the replies from participating farmers were compared to the replies from a control group of non-participating farmers. The fourth step was to map the administrative structure that steers rangeland management and explore the governance system’s structure and functions in order to elucidate the policy context in which agricultural and environmental policy targets for improved rangeland management practices were framed. This final study was also based on a questionnaire that was distributed to selected public and semi- public sector employees and sheep farmers. The results were used to gauge the participants’ attitude concerning rangeland management, their perception on state support and level of collaboration related to rangeland restoration and their views on current policies related to rangeland management. The findings from the first step of the research revealed that catastrophic soil erosion, depleting farmlands in the beginning of last century, was an early driver of ecosystem restoration in Iceland. The III findings also showed that soil erosion still ranked high as a driver in the early 2000s, although other drivers, such as moral values and nature conservation, along with concerns about use values, such as in relation to recreation, were also strong motivators for restoration actions. Public policy programmes were found to be a minor driver, which might indicate weaknesses in the policy instruments used for ecological restoration. The findings from the second step of the research showed that social factors, such as attitude and behavior, can be used as indicators of the effectiveness of restoration policies. They also pointed to a lack of functionality in the governance of SESs that could deter progress in achieving policy goals, and possibly block the necessary behavioral change among related stakeholders. Results from the third step showed that the restoration program investigated had not facilitated behavioral change in relation to improved rangeland management among participating farmers compared with non-participants, even though the participating farmers were shown to be more aware of the potential of rangeland restoration and were more motivated to engage in further collaboration, compared to the non-participants. The results also indicated that the direct incentives provided by the program were pushing the participants to favor agronomic instead of ecological approaches in their restoration activities. Furthermore, several organizational errors within the program management were detected, for instance regarding integration of participatory approaches and level of personal connections between the participants and the Soil Conservation Service that might be halting its further progress. Results from the fourth step indicated strongly that neither the governance process nor the current administrative structure of rangeland management had significantly facilitated expected changes in attitude among local authorities or among sheep farmers needed to bring about improved rangeland management practices within the agricultural sector. The key findings of this thesis were that the stated policy objectives of improving the ecological condition of rangeland, including the objectives of current agri-environmental programs and project related to rangeland management, have not yet been fully achieved. The thesis also pointed to the need for improved governance practices, by highlighting that the governance system for rangeland management was structurally limited, suffering from weak vertical and horizontal integration, and not designed to maintain and improve the ecological condition of rangelands’ ecosystems in the context of traditional sheep grazing management practices., Stór hluti íslenskra úthagavistkerfa er vistfræðilega í hnignuðu eða alvarlega röskuðu ástandi. Hluti þessara svæða er engu að síður nýttur til sauðfjárbeitar. Undanfarna áratugi hafa íslensk stjórnvöld lagt áherslu á bætta landnýtingu og endurheimt úthagavistkerfa og sett fram nýjar landbúnaðar- og umhverfisstefnur til þess að vinna að þeim markmiðum. Frá árinu 1990 hafa stjórnvöld innleitt nýjar stefnur, áætlanir og verkefni sem miða að því að viðhalda og bæta vistfræðilegt ástand úthaga og stuðla að því að landnýting á vegum sauðfjárbænda verði sjálfbær. Lítið er vitað um langtíma árangur þessara stefna og tengdra verkefna og ferlar þeirra og útkomur hafa aldrei verið skoðaðar samþætt eða þverfaglega. Meginmarkmið þessarar ritgerðar var að rannsaka stjórnun á nýtingu og endurheimt úthagavistkerfa í gegnum samfélags- og vistfræðilega greiningu, til að meta hvort langtímaárangur valinna stefnumiða stjórnvalda, og verkefna tengdum þeim, hafi náðst. Fyrsti hluti rannsóknarinnar fól í sér að gera sögulega greiningu á helstu hvötum að endurheimt vistkerfa á Íslandi síðustu 100 árin og kortleggja hvort hvatarnir hefðu breyst í gegnum árin. Rannsóknin byggði á yfirliti yfir 100 endurheimtarverkefni og svæði þar sem unnið hafi verið að endurheimt (75-85% af öllum endurheimtaraðgerðum á Íslandi). Í öðrum hluta hennar var samfélags- og vistfræðilega kerfið tengt endurheimt úthagavistkerfa á Íslandi skoðað til að meta hvort félagslegir þættir eins og viðhorf og hegðun hagaðila hefðu áhrif á innleiðingu og virkni landbúnaðar- og umhverfisstefna tengdum stjórnun á nýtingu og endurheimt úthagavistkerfa. Rannsóknin byggði á eigindlegri rannsókn (viðtölum) þar sem rætt var við 15 hagaðila. Þriðji hlutinn fól í sér að meta hvort samstarfsverkefni Landgræðslunnar og bænda um endurheimt úthagavistkerfa (Bændur græða landið) hefði stuðlað að viðhorfs- og hegðunarbreytingum á meðal sauðfjárbændanna sem tóku þátt í verkefninu. Sú rannsókn byggði á spurningakönnun þar sem allir sauðfjárbændur voru spurðir um viðhorf sín og hegðun í tengslum við endurheimt úthagavistkerfa og landnýtingu. Svör bændanna sem tóku þátt í endurheimtarverkefninu voru síðan borin saman við svör þeirra bænda sem ekki tóku þátt. Fjórða hlutinn snérist um að kortleggja stjórnsýsluna utan um nýtingu úthagavistkerfa og skoða samsetningu og virkni stjórnkerfisins til að skilja betur tengingarnar á milli núverandi landbúnaðar- og umhverfistengdra stefnumiða og það umhverfi sem markar stefnurnar. Þessi síðasti hluti rannsóknarinnar byggði einnig á niðurstöðum spurningakönnunar sem var dreift til valinna aðila sem störfuðu innan stjórnsýslunnar, tengdra samtaka og til sauðfjárbænda. Niðurstöðurnar voru nýttar til að meta viðhorf þátttakanda til stjórnunar á nýtingu úthagavistkerfa, skoðanir á stuðningi ríkisins til þessa málaflokks, vægi samstarfs um endurheimt úthagavistkerfa og sýn þeirra á núverandi stefnumið tengd nýtingu úthagavistkerfa. Niðurstöður fyrsta hluta rannsóknarinnar sýndu að gríðarleg jarðvegseyðing sem eyddi bújörðum í upphafi síðustu aldar, var upphafshvati endurheimtar vistkerfa á Íslandi. Í upphafi 21. aldarinnar var vægi jarðvegseyðingar enn hátt þó aðrir hvatar, svo sem siðferðileg gildi, náttúruvernd og útivistargildi V svæða væru einnig sterkir hvatar að baki endurheimtarverkefnum. Opinberar stefnumótunaráætlanir reyndust ekki öflugir hvatar, sem gaf til kynna undirliggjandi veikleika í opinberum stjórntækjum sem ætlað er að hafa áhrif á bætta landnýtingu og aukna endurheimt raskaðra vistkerfa. Niðurstöður annars hluta rannsóknarinnar bentu til að hægt sé að nýta samfélagslega þætti eins og viðhorf og hegðun fólks til að meta virkni stefnutengdra markmiða hvað varðar endurheimt vistkerfa. Niðurstöðurnar bentu einnig til takmarkana á virkni stjórnkerfis innan samsetts samfélags- og vistfræðilegs kerfis sem geta dregið úr möguleikum á að ná stefnutengdum markmiðum og hugsanlega einnig hindrað nauðsynlegar breytingar sem þurfa að verða á hegðun fólks til að markmiðin náist. Niðurstöður þriðja hluta rannsóknarinnar sýndu að endurheimtarverkefnið (Bændur græða landið, BGL) sem var til skoðunar hafði ekki ýtt marktækt undir hegðunarbreytingar hvað varðaði skipulag landnýtingar á meðal þeirra bænda sem tóku þátt í verkefninu samanborið við þá sem tóku ekki þátt í því. Bændurnir sem voru þátttakendur í verkefninu voru engu að síður betur meðvitaðir um hvaða svæði var mögulegt að endurheimta og voru tilbúnari í samstarf um slík verkefni en þeir bændur sem ekki tóku þátt. Rannsóknin leiddi einnig í ljós að beinu hvatarnir sem fylgdu þátttöku í verkefninu virtust ýta bændunum frekar í átt að nota ræktunarmiðaðar aðferðir í stað vistfræðilegra nálgana við endurheimt vistkerfa. Matið sem gert var í þriðja hluta rannsóknarinnar leiddi í ljós nokkrar skipulagsvillur (e. organizational errors) innan stjórnunar BGL verkefnisins sem gætu verið að aftra frekari árangri þess. Villurnar tengdust til að mynda innleiðingu þátttökunálgana í verkefnið sem og styrk persónulegra tengsla milli þátttakenda í verkefninu og starfsmanna Landgræðslunnar annars vegar og hins vegar traust þátttakenda til Landgræðslunnar sem stofnunar. Niðurstöður fjórða hluti rannsóknarinnar gáfu sterklega til kynna að hvorki núverandi stjórnsýslukerfi sem heldur utan um nýtingu úthagavistkerfa, né stjórnarhættir innan þess, hafi marktækt ýtt undir væntar viðhorfsbreytingar á meðal sveitarstjórnarfólks eða sauðfjárbænda, eitthvað sem nauðsynlega þarf að gerast svo að núverandi nýtingarform úthagavistkerfa innan landbúnaðargeirans batni til frambúðar. Meginniðurstöður þessarar ritgerðar voru að skilgreind stefnumið stjórnvalda sem lúta að því að bæta vistfræðilegt ástand úthaga sem og markmið núverandi landbúnaðar- og umhverfistengdra áætlana og verkefna sem tengjast stjórnun á nýtingu úthagavistkerfa hafa ekki náðst að fullu. Ritgerðin sýndi einnig fram á nauðsyn bættra stjórnunarhátta með því að draga fram að stjórnkerfið sem tengist úthaganýtingu var ekki nógu vel uppbyggt og það hamlaði öllu flæði tengdu því. Hvorki láréttar né lóðréttar tengingar kerfisins voru nægjanlega samþættar eða fyllilega virkar og stjórnkerfið því ekki í stakk búið til að viðhalda og efla vistfræðilegt ástand úthagavistkerfa miðað við núverandi beitarstjórnunarkerfi., The Energy Research Fund of Landsvirkjun; The Agricultural Productivity Fund, Final

We explore how herd composition and management factors correlate with frequencies of social interactions in horse groups. Since the welfare of horses correlates with low aggression levels and social contact opportunities, information of this kind is important. The data are a collection of records of social interactions of 426 Icelandic horses in 20 groups of at least eight horses. The complexities and limitations of the data prohibit useful statistical modelling so the results are presented descriptively. Interesting and informative patterns emerge which can be of use both in management and in future studies. Of special interest are the low levels of agonistic behaviours in breeding groups where one stallion was present. The horses were less agonistic when in groups with young foals and where group membership was stable. Unfamiliar yearlings in peer groups were especially aggressive. Allogrooming was most frequent in groups with relatively more young horses and in unstable and small groups. Interestingly, the horses allogroomed more if they had few preferred allogrooming partners. The findings show that composition (age/sex) and stability of groups are of great importance with respect to aggression levels and opportunities for establishing bonds., The Icelandic Centre for Research (Rannís) The University of Iceland Trust Fund (Rannsóknasjóður Háskóla Íslands), Ritrýnd grein

Land degradation and extensive soil erosion are serious environmental concerns in Iceland. Natural processes associated with a harsh climate and frequent volcanic activity have shaped Icelandic landscapes. However, following human settlement and the introduction of livestock in the 9th century the extent of soil erosion rapidly escalated. Despite increased restoration and afforestation efforts and a considerable reduction in sheep numbers during the late 20th century, many Icelandic rangelands remain in poor condition. A deeper understanding of the ecology of these dynamic landscapes is needed, and state-and-transition models (STMs) can provide a useful conceptual framework. STMs have been developed for ecosystems worldwide to guide research, monitoring and management, but have been used at relatively small spatial scales and have not been extensively applied to high-latitude rangelands. Integrating the best available knowledge, we develop STMs for rangelands in Iceland, where sheep grazing is often regarded as a main driver of degradation. We use STMs at a country-wide scale for three time periods with different historical human influence, from pre-settlement to present days. We also apply our general STM to a case study in the central highlands of Iceland to illustrate the potential application of these models at scales relevant to management. Our STMs identify the set of possible states, transitions and thresholds in these ecosystems and their changes over time, and suggest increasing complexity in recent times. This approach can help identify important knowledge gaps and inform management efforts and monitoring programmes, by identifying realistic and achievable conservation and restoration goals., I. C. B. was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship funded by theIcelandic Research Fund (Rannsóknasjóður, grant 152468‐051) andAXA Research Fund (15‐AXA‐PDOC‐307). D. S. H. recieved supportfrom the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (Canada),and ISJ from the University of Iceland Research Fund.

Along with climate change, herbivory is considered a main driver of ecosystem change in terrestrial Arctic environments. Understanding how herbivory influences the resilience of Arctic ecosystems to ongoing environmental changes is essential to inform policy and guide sustainable management practices. However, many studies indicate that the effects of herbivores on plants and ecosystem functioning depend on the abiotic and biotic conditions where the interaction takes place, i.e. the ecological context. Yet, the range of ecological contexts in which herbivory has been studied in the Arctic has not been systematically assessed. A lack of such evaluation prevents understanding the robustness and generalizability of our knowledge of Arctic herbivore effects on vegetation and ecosystems. The main objective of our systematic map is to identify the ecological contexts where herbivory is studied in the Arctic. Hence, this systematic map will enable us to assess our ability to make generalizable and robust conclusions regarding the impacts of Arctic herbivory., FRAM—High North Research Centre for Climate and the Environment supported this work with funding for two workshops (project name: “The status of evidence for herbivory in Arctic tundra ecosystems—A protocol for a systematic map”). Funding from the Terrestrial Working Group of the International Arctic Science Committee (IASC) was received to organize the Herbivory Network workshop in Iceland, where some of the initial ideas were discussed.