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Childhood obesity has become a worldwide epidemic in the 21st century. Its treatment is challenging and often ineffective, among others due to complex, often not obvious causes. Awareness of the existence and meaning of psychosocial and environmental risk factors seems to be an essential element in the prevention and treatment of obesity and its complications, especially arterial hypertension. In this review, we will discuss the role of that risk factors linking obesity and increased cardiovascular disorders including the role of nutritional factors (including the role of unhealthy diet, inadequate hydration), unhealthy behaviors (e.g. smoking, alcohol and drugs, sedentary behavior, low physical activity, disrupted circadian rhythms, sleep disorders, screen exposure), unfavorable social factors (such as dysfunctional family, bullying, chronic stress, mood disorders, depression, urbanization, noise, and environmental pollution), and finally differences in cardiovascular risk in girls and boys.

Objetivo: Contrastar si hay diferencias significativas entre universidades en la proclividad a elegir medicina de familia y comunitaria (MFyC), dadas las restricciones impuestas por el número de elección. Contrastar la hipótesis de que las facultades que tienen la MFyC como asignatura obligatoria en el grado (3 de 27) presentan mayor predilección por esta especialidad. Diseño: Estudio observacional sobre el archivo de datos individuales de elección de plaza MIR en las convocatorias 2003-2011. Emplazamiento: España. Participantes: Todos los que se presentaron al examen MIR en las convocatorias 2003-2011. Mediciones principales: Posición en el ranking de cada candidato, plaza elegida (especialidad y centro), código postal de residencia, sexo, nacionalidad y universidad en la que se ha formado, y código postal del lugar escogido para la residencia. Resultados: Porcentaje de elección de MFyC está muy correlacionado con la posición en el ranking: 8% de los licenciados por la «mejor» universidad, y 46% para la última. Hay diferencias muy notorias y consistentes en la preparación para el MIR entre las 27 facultades de medicina. Ranking en el examen, sexo femenino y ser extranjero ayudan a pronosticar la elección de MFyC. La obligatoriedad de currículum de MFyC de 3 universidades no parece influir en la elección de la especialidad. Conclusiones: La conveniente competencia por comparación entre las facultades, su currículum de MFyC, así como la insistencia en los atributos más atractivos de la especialidad pueden contribuir a la necesaria renovación de la MFyC.

BackgroundDespite the extensive use of antibiotics and the growing challenge of antimicrobial resistance, there has been a lack of substantial initiatives aimed at diminishing the prevalence of infections in nursing homes and enhancing the detection of urinary tract infections (UTIs). ObjectiveThis study aims to systematize and enhance efforts to prevent health care–associated infections, mainly UTIs and reduce antibiotic inappropriateness by implementing a multifaceted intervention targeting health care professionals in nursing homes. MethodsA before-and-after intervention study carried out in a minimum of 10 nursing homes in each of the 8 European participating countries (Denmark, Greece, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain). A team of 4 professionals consisting of nurses, doctors, health care assistants, or health care helpers are actively involved in each nursing home. Over the initial 3-month period, professionals in each nursing home are registering information on UTIs as well as infection and prevention control measures by means of the Audit Project Odense method. The audit will be repeated after implementing a multifaceted intervention. The intervention will consist of feedback and discussion of the results from the first registration, training on the implementation of infection and prevention control techniques provided by experts, appropriateness of the diagnostic approach and antibiotic prescribing for UTIs, and provision of information materials on infection control and antimicrobial stewardship targeted to staff, residents, and relatives. We will compare the pre- and postintervention audit results using chi-square test for prescription appropriateness and Student t test for implemented hygiene elements. ResultsA total of 109 nursing homes have participated in the pilot study and the first registration audit. The results of the first audit registration are expected to be published in autumn of 2024. The final results will be published by the end of 2025. ConclusionsThis is a European Union–funded project aimed at contributing to the battle against antimicrobial resistance through improvement of the quality of management of common infections based on evidence-based interventions tailored to the nursing home setting and a diverse range of professionals. We expect the intervention to result in a significant increase in the number of hygiene activities implemented by health care providers and residents. Additionally, we anticipate a marked reduction in the number of inappropriately managed UTIs, as well as a substantial decrease in the overall incidence of infections following the intervention. International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)DERR1-10.2196/60099

Abstract Background The long-standing underrepresentation of women in leadership positions in medicine is well-known, but poorly documented globally. There is some evidence of the gender gap in academia, medical society leadership, or specific problems in some specialties. However, there are no investigations analyzing all medical specialties together and reporting the glass ceiling from a 360º perspective that includes positions in academia, research, professional organizations, and clinical activity. Additionally, the majority of studies have a US perspective, and we wonder if the perspective of a European country might be different. The WOmen in MEDicine in Spain (WOMEDS) project ( https://womeds.es ) aims to describe and characterize, in a systematic and detailed way, the gender bias in the medical profession in Spain in order to monitor its evolution over time and contribute to prioritizing gender policies. Methods We retrieved data for the calendar years 2019–2021 from several sources and selected surveys. We built four groups of indicators to describe leadership positions in the medical profession: (i) leadership in healthcare according to specialty and region; (ii) leadership in scientific and professional bodies; (iii) academic career; and (iv) leadership in clinical research activity. As a summary measure, we reported the women ratios, calculated as the percentage of women in specific top positions divided by the percentage of women in the relevant population. Results We found gender inequity in leadership positions in all four settings. During the observed period, only 27.6% of the heads of departments in hospitals were women compared to 61.1% of women in medical staff. Ten of the 46 medical societies grouped in the Spanish Federation of Medical Societies (FACME) (21.7%) had a women president at some point during the study period, and only 4 annual congresses had ratios of women speakers higher than 1. Women were over-represented in the lower positions and underrepresented in the top academic ones. Only 26% and 27%, respectively, of the heads of departments and deans were women. The applications for public funding for research projects are led by women only in 45% of the cases, and the budget granted to women in public calls was 24.3% lower than that of men. Conclusion In all the areas analyzed, the leadership positions are still mostly occupied by men despite the feminization of medicine in Spain. The severe gender inequity found calls for urgent interventions within a defined time horizon. Such measures must concern all levels, from national or regional regulation to changes in organizational culture or incentives in specific organizations.

Resumen: Prácticamente todos los países desarrollados hacen ejercicios de planificación de médicos. Podemos aprender de las experiencias exitosas. La modelización y proyección de la oferta es técnicamente compleja, pero es solo una cuestión técnica, mientras que la evaluación de la demanda o necesidad, y por tanto el resultado en términos de déficit o superávit, requiere estándares, generalmente en ratios poblacionales, que se basan en juicios de expertos y pertenecen al universo normativo. Un tipo de problema técnico no del todo resuelto es el de convertir «cabezas» en equivalentes a tiempo completo. Afortunadamente, se está avanzando en la dirección correcta. Necesitamos más y mejor información, en particular el Registro Estatal de Profesionales Sanitarios, pero aun con las limitaciones y servidumbres de los datos, hay que planificar. El Ministerio de Sanidad, las comunidades autónomas y otras organizaciones profesionales y sindicales realizan regularmente ejercicios de planificación. Tenemos altas tasas de médicos y de graduados, y bajas de enfermeras, un pluriempleo creciente simultaneando la práctica pública y la privada, y déficits a corto plazo en algunas especialidades, en particular en medicina de familia, que necesita urgentemente incentivos específicos para estimular vocaciones. Los números cuentan solo una parte de la historia. Los desequilibrios en los mercados educativo y laboral no se resuelven convocando plazas, sino reformando el marco regulatorio, los sistemas de incentivos y la holgura de la gestión pública para competir con la privada por la atracción y la retención de talento. Abstract: Virtually all developed countries conduct physician planning exercises. We can learn from successful experiences. The modeling and projection of supply is technically complex, but it is a technical matter, whereas the assessment of demand or need, and therefore the outcome in terms of deficit or surplus, requires standards, usually in population ratios, which are based on expert judgments and belong to the normative universe. One type of technical problem insufficiently solved is that of converting “heads” into full time equivalents. Fortunately, progress is being made in the right direction. We need more and better information, in particular the State Register of Health Professionals, but even with the limitations of the data, it is necessary to plan. The Ministry of Health, the Autonomous Regions and other professional and union organizations regularly carry out planning exercises. We have high rates of physicians and graduates, and low rates of nurses, a growing number of physicians in both public and private practice, and short-term deficits in some specialties, particularly family medicine, which urgently needs specific incentives to stimulate vocations. The numbers tell only part of the story. The imbalances in the educational and labor markets are not resolved by creating vacancies, but rather by reforming the regulatory framework, incentive systems and public management slack to compete with the private sector in attracting and retaining talent.

Resumen: En este artículo se caracterizan los rasgos principales de la oferta, la demanda y los mercados laborales de médicos en España, con perspectiva internacional y territorial. También se presentan algunos de los resultados del modelo de simulación de médicos especialistas con horizonte 2035 y se proponen líneas de acción estratégica y a corto plazo en la planificación, la regulación y la gestión de profesionales sanitarios en España, con el foco puesto en los médicos especialistas. En España hay tasas altas de médicos y de graduados en medicina, pero tasas bajas de enfermeras, en comparación con otros países desarrollados. En torno al 30% de los médicos en ejercicio (sin contar los residentes) ejercen únicamente en la red privada. En las últimas dos décadas se ha intensificado la competencia del sector privado por captar profesionales sanitarios, compitiendo con la red pública, sometida a un marco regulatorio excesivamente rígido. Hay déficits de médicos en algunas especialidades, en particular en medicina de familia, que necesita con urgencia incentivos específicos para estimular vocaciones. Los números cuentan solo una parte de la historia. Los desequilibrios en los mercados educativo y laboral no se resuelven convocando plazas, sino reformando el marco regulatorio, los sistemas de incentivos y la holgura de la gestión pública para competir con la privada por la atracción y la retención de talento. Abstract: This article characterizes the main features of the supply, demand, and labor markets for physicians in Spain, with an international and territorial perspective. It also presents some of the results of the simulation model for specialist physicians with a 2035 horizon and proposes strategic and short-term lines of action in the planning, regulation, and management of health professionals in Spain, with a focus on specialist physicians. In Spain there are high rates of physicians and medical graduates, but low rates of nurses, compared to other developed countries. Approximately 30% of practicing physicians (not considering residents) practice only in the private network. In the last two decades, competition from the private sector for health professionals has intensified, competing with the public network, which is subject to an excessively rigid regulatory framework. There is currently a shortage of physicians in some specialties, particularly in family medicine, which urgently needs specific incentives to stimulate vocations. Numbers consider only part of the story. The imbalances in the educational and labor markets are not resolved by creating vacancies, but by reforming the regulatory framework, the incentive systems, and the slack in public management to compete with the private sector in attracting and retaining talent.

Resumen: El informe de evaluación independiente del desempeño del Sistema Nacional de Salud frente a la crisis de la COVID-19 es riguroso y está bien planteado y ejecutado. Ha contado con la participación de numerosas personas expertas e instituciones. Destaca el esfuerzo altruista de los coordinadores y de centenares de personas expertas, profesionales y ciudadanos/as que no justifica la asimetría entre el «todo gratis» cuando se trata de inteligencia compartida y precios de mercado cuando se trata de encargar a consultoras informes que a veces no valen lo que cuestan. El valioso trabajo ha sufrido demoras inexplicadas y retraso en la difusión que no son buen presagio sobre si realmente hay interés en aprender de la pandemia, o bien solo en dejarla atrás y olvidarla. Incluso, todavía no se han hecho públicos, a pesar de la petición de los coordinadores, valiosos informes aportados por la propia Administración pública (listados en el informe). Con todo, el solo hecho de que la evaluación se haya realizado por la influencia y la presión de personas de ciencia y profesionales debería alentar las acciones de las organizaciones civiles. Es preciso incidir para lograr que las Administraciones públicas vean la inteligencia colectiva como un recurso inestimable que debe cuidarse y estimularse. Cabe trabajar con intensidad para lograr la rendición de cuentas periódica de los poderes ejecutivos a todos los niveles. Muchas propuestas sensatas para mejorar la sanidad han sido ignoradas, pero aprendimos que los logros se consiguen con perseverancia. No es una opción, es parte de la acción nuclear de la salud pública. Abstract: The independent evaluation report on the performance of the National Health System in the face of the COVID crisis is rigorous, well thought out and well executed. It has benefited from the participation of numerous experts and institutions. The altruistic effort of the coordinators and hundreds of experts, professionals and citizens is noteworthy, which does not justify the asymmetry between “everything for free” when it comes to shared intelligence, and market prices when it comes to commissioning reports from consultancy firms that are sometimes not worth the cost. The valuable work has suffered from unexplained delays and delayed dissemination that do not bode well for whether there is interest in learning from the pandemic or leaving it behind and forgetting it. Indeed, valuable reports provided by the public administration itself (listed in the report) have still not been made public, despite the request of the coordinators. However, the mere fact that the evaluation has been carried out under the influence and pressure of scientists and professionals should encourage the actions of civil society organisations. Advocacy is needed to ensure that public administrations see collective intelligence as an invaluable resource to be nurtured and stimulated. Regular accountability of executive powers at all levels needs to be pursued vigorously. Many sensible proposals to improve healthcare have been ignored, but we learned that achievements are made with perseverance. It is not an option, it is part of the core business of public health.

Resumen: La pandemia de COVID-19 ha afectado de manera particularmente intensa a España, pese a su nivel de desarrollo y la elogiada solidez de su Sistema Nacional de Salud. Para comprender qué ha pasado e identificar cómo mejorar la respuesta creemos imprescindible una evaluación independiente multidisciplinaria de la esfera sanitaria, política y socioeconómica. En este trabajo proponemos objetivos, principios, metodología y dimensiones a evaluar, además de esbozar el tipo de resultados y conclusiones esperadas. Nos inspiramos en los requerimientos formulados por el panel independiente de la Organización Mundial de la Salud y en las experiencias evaluativas en otros países, y detallamos la propuesta de aspectos multidimensionales que deben valorarse. La idea es comprender aspectos clave en los ámbitos estudiados y su margen de mejora en lo relativo a preparación, gobernanza, marco normativo, estructuras del Sistema Nacional de Salud (atención primaria, hospitalaria y de salud pública), sector de educación, esquemas de protección social, minimización del impacto económico, y marco y reformas en el ámbito laboral para una sociedad más resiliente. En definitiva, buscamos que este ejercicio sirva no solo para el presente, sino también para que en el futuro estemos mejor preparados y con más ágil capacidad de recuperación ante las amenazas pandémicas que puedan surgir. Abstract: The COVID-19 pandemic has hit Spain particularly hard, despite being a country with a developed economy and being praised for the robustness of its national health system. In order to understand what happened and to identify how to improve the response, we believe that an independent multi-disciplinary evaluation of the health, political and socio-economic spheres is essential. In this piece we propose objectives, principles, methodology and dimensions to be evaluated, as well as outlining the type of results and conclusions expected. Inspired by the requirements formulated by the WHO Independent Panel for Pandemic Preparedness and Response and by experiences in other countries, we detail the multidimensional aspects to be evaluated. The goal is to understand key aspects in the studied areas and their scope for improvement in terms of preparedness, governance, regulatory framework, national health system structures (primary care, hospital, and public health), education sector, social protection schemes, minimization of economic impact, and labour framework and reforms for a more resilient society. We seek to ensure that this exercise serves not only at present, but also that in the future we are better prepared and more agile in terms of our ability to recover from any pandemic threats that may arise.

Objective: We address the hypothesis that the extraordinary sandstorm occurred on 22-24 February 2020 might have a role in the different cumulated incidence of COVID-19 cases between the islands of Tenerife and Gran Canaria, since it obliged to reduce significantly air traffic and forced to suspend all major carnival street events in all most locations. Method: We performed a retrospective analysis of COVID-19 cases as to 1 April 2020 according to symptoms onset, weather-related data and Carnival events in Tenerife and Gran Canaria. Results: The sandstorm occurred on February 22-24, 2020, forced air traffic to close, reducing the influx of tourists to the Canary Islands and suspending carnival events in most places, except in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Cumulated incidence as to 1 April was 132.81/100,000 in Tenerife, and 56.04/100,000 in Gran Canaria. Conclusions: The suspension of Carnival events due to the sandstorm in the Canary Islands contributed to reduce differently the SARS-CoV-2 spread in Tenerife and Gran Canaria. Resumen: Objetivo: Investigar la hipótesis de que la extraordinaria tormenta de arena ocurrida el 22-24 de febrero de 2020 pudo tener un papel en la diferente incidencia acumulada de casos de COVID-19 entre las islas de Tenerife y Gran Canaria, en cuanto conllevó una reducción significativa del tráfico aéreo y la cancelación de las mayores celebraciones del carnaval en muchas poblaciones. Método: Se realiza un análisis retrospectivo de los casos de COVID-19 hasta el 1 abril de 2020 según fecha de inicio de los síntomas, de los datos climáticos y de las celebraciones de carnaval en Tenerife y Gran Canaria. Resultados: La tormenta de arena ocurrida el 22-24 de febrero de 2020 obligó a cerrar el tráfico aéreo, reduciendo la llegada de turistas a Canarias, y a suspender las celebraciones de los carnavales en muchas poblaciones, excepto en Santa Cruz de Tenerife. El 1 abril de 2020, la incidencia acumulada de casos era de 132,81/100.000 en Tenerife y de 56,04/100.000 en Gran Canaria. Conclusiones: La cancelación de las celebraciones de carnaval debido a la tempestad de arena en las Islas Canarias parece que contribuyó de manera diferente a la reducción de la incidencia del SARS-CoV-2 en Tenerife y Gran Canaria.

We analyze the socioeconomic and political contextual determinants of the burden of disease attributable to three metabolic risks in children: kidney dysfunction, high fasting plasma glucose, and high body-mass index. We use data from 121 countries. We matched data of the Global Burden of Disease project, World Bank and United Nations databases. The burden of disease is measured with the Disability Adjusted Life Years lost. We explore associations with four groups of variables: (i) income level, which measures differences in socioeconomic conditions between countries; (ii) income inequality, which measures within country inequalities in the income distribution; (iii) health care expenditure, which measures the resources allocated to health and healthcare, and (iv) women empowerment, which we measure in terms of both educational and political participation. Our findings point toward the need to act at the root of the underlying factors underpinning the disease burden, namely: reducing between and, particularly, within-country income inequalities, increasing the role of expenditure on health, and ensuring women empowerment and girls education. To our knowledge, this is the first study that have identified the associations of these variables with the burden of disease that is specifically attributable to metabolic risks in childhood.

Purpose – This paper aims to provide an estimation of the costs of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic with a special focus on Spain. Costs include macroeconomic costs of foregone gross domestic product (GDP) attributable to the pandemic and the direct and indirect costs of prevention, treatment and lost productivity. This study also analyzes the cost-effectiveness of the test-tracking-quarantine (TTQ) strategy in Spain. Design/methodology/approach – The macroeconomic costs of foregone GDP attributable to the pandemic are estimated for different countries and areas by comparing the present GDP forecasts for 2020 and 2021 with counterfactuals estimated before the COVID-19 crisis aftermath. The total cost of the COVID-19 for Spain in 2020 was obtained using the cost of illness approach with a bottom-up process. A cost-effectiveness analysis of the TTQ strategy in Spain is based on the estimation of the total costs of TTQ and the health gains and avoided health-care costs associated with the TTQ strategy. A sensitivity analysis explores the consequences of uncertainty in key parameters. Findings – The GDP cost of the COVID-19 is by far larger than all the other components of the cost. The global cost of the Covid-19 crisis in 2020–2021 is estimated at 14% of 2019 GDP (around 12,206 mm$). In the specific case of Spain, it amounts to 24% of the 2019 GDP; which is 397.3 m €. Spain is and will be by far the European country most economically affected by the pandemic. In Spain 2020, the GDP cost accounts for 94.7% of the total cost of the COVID-19 and health-care direct costs are only 2.14%. TTQ is a dominant strategy in Spain. For each euro spent on it, 7 euros will be recovered only in terms of saved health-care resources. Research limitations/implications – Given the large degree of uncertainty and the fast-evolving nature of the epidemic, a number of assumptions are required to arrive at the estimates provided in this study. The results were found to be robust to the assumptions applied. Practical implications – TTQ is a key strategy for the contention of the epidemy and it is justified from the economic perspective. Originality/value – This is the first estimation of the cost of the COVID-19 and the cost-effectiveness of the TTQ strategy for Spain.

Objective: This study was aimed at evaluating the appropriateness of use and interpretation of rapid antigen detection testing (RADT) and antibiotic prescribing for acute pharyngitis six years after a multifaceted intervention. Design: Before-and-after audit-based study. Location: Primary care centres in eight autonomous Communities. Participants: General practitioners (GP) who had participated in the HAPPY AUDIT intervention study in 2008 and 2009 were invited to participate in a third audit-based study six years later (2015). Method: RADTs were provided to the participating practices and the GPs were requested to consecutively register all adults with acute pharyngitis. A registration form specifically designed for this study was used. Results: A total of 121 GPs out of the 210 who participated in the first two audits agreed to participate in the third audit (57.6%). They registered 3394 episodes of pharyngitis in the three registrations. RADTs were used in 51.7% of all the cases immediately after the intervention, and in 49.4% six years later. Antibiotics were prescribed in 21.3% and 36.1%, respectively (P

Resumen: Se realiza una reflexión en torno a tres grandes palancas para reconstruir el sistema sanitario: la gobernanza, la integración asistencial y la digitalización. España tiene niveles preocupantes de calidad de la democracia y de confianza de la población en sus políticos, y se requieren grandes cambios en la Administración pública para conseguir un mejor Estado. La sanidad presenta una arquitectura institucional deficiente que impide una adecuada gobernanza macro. También falta autonomía de gestión de los centros sanitarios públicos, lo cual dificulta la competencia por comparación, la integración asistencial y la coordinación intranivel y entre niveles asistenciales. La pandemia ha puesto en valor el profesionalismo y ha demostrado que es posible una gestión sanitaria ágil, pero el reto es mantener esa flexibilidad fuera del estado de alarma. La integración asistencial es más necesaria a medida que la población envejece (aunque sea saludablemente), y la financiación capitativa es una potente herramienta para lograrla. La digitalización concierne a prácticamente todos los ámbitos de la sanidad y la salud poblacional, y traerá consigo cambios organizativos de gran calado, requiriendo nuevos métodos de evaluación, diferentes según el grado de intrusismo en la salud individual. La telemedicina, auspiciada durante la pandemia con vocación de permanencia, induce cambios en las relaciones laborales, entre otros. Es preciso medir el valor de las herramientas y de las tecnologías digitales. España tiene una oportunidad única para su transformación digital, gracias a los fondos europeos. Abstract: Reflection on three major levers for rebuilding the healthcare system: governance, integration of health and social care and digitalization. Spain has worrying levels of quality of democracy and public confidence in its politicians, and major changes are required in public administration to achieve a better state. Healthcare suffers from a deficient institutional architecture that prevents adequate macrogovernance. There is also a lack of autonomy in the management of public health centers, which hinders competition by comparison, care integration and coordination within and between levels of care. The pandemic has highlighted the value of professionalism and has shown that agile healthcare management is possible, but the challenge is to maintain this flexibility outside state of alarm. Care integration is more necessary as the population ages (albeit healthily), and per capita financing is a powerful tool to achieve it. Digitization concerns practically all areas of healthcare and population health, and will bring with it far-reaching organizational changes, requiring new methods of evaluation that differ according to the degree of intrusiveness in individual health. Telemedicine, sponsored during the pandemic with a view to permanence, induces changes in labor relations, among others. It is necessary to measure the value of digital tools and technologies. Spain has a unique opportunity for its digital transformation, thanks to European funds.

Abstract Background The Canary Islands is one of the Spanish Regions with the highest obesity prevalence, and one of the Autonomous Communities that was hit hard by the economic crisis that arrived to Spain in 2008. This research studies the education-related inequalities in adult obesity in the Canary Islands and their evolution in recent years, considering the possible impact of the economic recession. Methods A repeated cross-sectional analysis is carried out with data obtained from the Canary Islands Health Surveys of 2004, 2009 and 2015. Obesity is measured through the body mass index (BMI). The analysis is performed using linear regression models for the general population and by gender, adjusting by age, educational attainment and island of residence. Likewise, the models also include dummy variables for each year and the corresponding interactions between the years and the education variable. Results The results show a decrease in the obesity prevalence in 2015 compared to 2009 (from 19.54 to 18.64%). An increase in the BMI of the population and that of women (+ 0.33 and + 0.59 units, respectively) in 2009, as well as a decline in the BMI of women with medium education (− 0.21 units) are also observed. Besides, there is an inverse correlation between education and BMI, and statistically significant differences among some islands. Conclusions Obesity figures in the Canary Islands have decreased and women have been more greatly affected by the changes in BMI during the economic crisis. Due to the fact that educational attainment is a protective factor in general (and for women with medium education levels in times of crisis, in particular), regional authorities should implement actions that promote access to education and healthy lifestyles, paying attention to territorial disparities.

Obesity has become a major epidemic in the 21st century. It increases the risk of dyslipidemia, hypertension, and type 2 diabetes, which are known cardiometabolic risk factors and components of the metabolic syndrome. Although overt cardiovascular (CV) diseases such as stroke or myocardial infarction are the domain of adulthood, it is evident that the CV continuum begins very early in life. Recognition of risk factors and early stages of CV damage, at a time when these processes are still reversible, and the development of prevention strategies are major pillars in reducing CV morbidity and mortality in the general population. In this review, we will discuss the role of well-known but also novel risk factors linking obesity and increased CV risk from prenatal age to adulthood, including the role of perinatal factors, diet, nutrigenomics, and nutri-epigenetics, hyperuricemia, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and cardiorespiratory fitness. The importance of ‘tracking’ of these risk factors on adult CV health is highlighted and the economic impact of childhood obesity as well as preventive strategies are discussed.

Introduction: General practitioners (GP) in Spain do not have access to rapid tests and adherence to guidelines is usually suboptimal. The aim of the study is to evaluate the estimated number of antibiotics that could have been saved if GPs had appropriately used these tests and had followed the guidelines. Design: Observational study. Setting: Primary care centres from eight Autonomous Communities in Spain. Participants: GPs who had not participated in previous studies on rational use of antibiotics. Intervention: GPs registered all the cases of pharyngitis and lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) during 15 working days in 2015, by means of a 47-item audit. Main measurements: Actual GPs’ antibiotic prescription and estimated number of antibiotics that could have been saved according to recent guidelines. Results: A total of 126 GPs registered 1012 episodes of pharyngitis and 1928 LRTIs. Antibiotics were given or patients were referred in 497 patients with pharyngitis (49.1%) and 963 patients with LRTI (49.9%). If GPs had appropriately used rapid antigen detection tests and C-reactive protein tests and had strictly followed current guidelines, antibiotics would have been given to 7.6% and 15.1%, respectively, with an estimated saving of 420 antibiotics in patients with sore throat (estimated saving of 84.5%; 95% CI: 81.1–87.4%) and 672 antibiotics in LRTIs (estimated saving of 69.8%,95% CI: 67.1–72.5%). Conclusions: GP adherence to guidelines and a correct introduction of rapid tests in clinical practice in Spain could result in a considerable saving of unnecessary prescription of antibiotics in pharyngitis and LRTIs.

OBJECTIVES:To test the heterogeneity of the effect of a change in pharmaceutical cost-sharing by therapeutic groups in a Spanish region. METHODS:Data: random sample (provided by the Canary Islands Health Service) of 40,471 people covered by the Spanish National Health System (SNHS) in the Canary Islands. The database includes individualised monthly-dispensed medications (prescribed by the SNHS) from one year before (August 2011) to one year after (June 2013) the Royal Decree Law 16/2012 (RDL 16/2012). Sample: two intervention groups (low-income pensioners and middle-income working population) and one control group (low-income working population). Empirical model: quasi-experimental difference-in-differences design to study the change in consumption (measured in number of monthly Defined Daily Dose (DDDs) per individual) among 13 therapeutic groups. The policy break indicator (three-level categorical variable) tested the existence of stockpiling between the reform's announcement and its implementation. We ran 16 linear regression models (general, by therapeutic groups and by comorbidities) that considered whether the exclusion of some drugs from public provision impacted on consumption more than the co-payment increase. RESULTS:General: Reduction (-13.04) in consumption after the reform's implementation, which was fully compensated by a previous increase (16.60 i.e., stockpiling) among low-income pensioners. The middle-income working population maintained its trend of increasing consumption. Therapeutic groups: Reductions in consumption after the reform's implementation among low-income pensioners in 7 of the 13 groups, which were fully compensated for by a previous increase (i.e., stockpiling) in 4 groups and partially compensated for in the remaining 3. The analysis without the excluded medicines provided fewer negative coefficients. Comorbidities: Reduction in consumption that was only slightly compensated for by a previous increase (i.e., stockpiling). CONCLUSIONS:The negative impact of cost-sharing produced, among low-income pensioners, a risk of loss of adherence to treatments, which could deteriorate the health status of individuals, especially among pensioners within the most inelastic therapeutic groups (associated with chronic diseases) and patients with comorbidities (also, associated with chronic diseases). Notwithstanding the above, this risk was more related to the exclusion of some drugs from provision than to the cost-sharing increase.

En 2012 cambió la legislación española que regulaba el copago farmacéutico de la prestación farmacéutica del Sistema Nacional de Salud (SNS). El objetivo fue conocer si este cambio afecta al consumo de los medicamentos para enfermedades crónicas, tales como antidiabéticos, antitrombóticos y fármacos contra padecimientos obstructivos de las vías respiratorias. Método: Estudio observacional longitudinal retrospectivo. Se utiliza - ron modelos de regresión lineal segmentada general para series de tiempo interrumpido. Las variables analizadas fueron el número de dosis diarias definidas (DDDs) y el importe de la facturación de las dispensaciones finan - ciadas y no financiadas por el SNS desde septiembre de 2010 hasta agosto de 2015 (T=60). Resultados: La tasa de variación estimada de las DDDs fue negativa pero decreciente para los 3 subgrupos terapéuticos a los 6, 12, 24 y 38 meses de la intervención: -0,1% para antidiabéticos a los 6 meses y 0,3% a los 38 meses; -3,7% para antitrombóticos a los 6 meses y -4,6% a los 38 meses; -2,7% a los 6 meses para anti-asma y EPOC y -1,3% a los 38 meses. Se estimó una reducción mantenida y significativa del gasto únicamente en el subgrupo para asma y EPOC: -5,2% a los 6 meses, -7,0% a los 12 meses y a los 24 meses y -6,2% a los 38 meses. Conclusiones: La reforma del copago farmacéutico de 2012 ocasionó una reducción inmediata y significativa en el número de dosis diarias de - finidas de los tres grupos terapéuticos estudiados. Este efecto nivel no fue permanente ya que se acompañó de un cambio en la tendencia de crecimiento en los meses post-intervención que, en parte, compensó el efecto sobre el nivel.

Many studies have demonstrated the existence of simple, unidimensional socioeconomic gradients in body mass index (BMI). However, in the present paper we move beyond such traditional analyses by simultaneously considering multiple demographic and socioeconomic dimensions. Using the Spanish National Health Survey 2011-2012, we apply intersectionality theory and multilevel analysis of individual heterogeneity and discriminatory accuracy (MAIHDA) to analyze 14,190 adults nested within 108 intersectional strata defined by combining categories of gender, age, income, educational achievement and living situation. We develop two multilevel models to obtain information on stratum-specific BMI averages and the degree of clustering of BMI within strata expressed by the intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC). The first model is a simple variance components analysis that provides a detailed mapping of the BMI disparities in the population and measures the accuracy of stratum membership to predict individual BMI. The second model includes the variables used to define the intersectional strata as a way to identify stratum-specific interactions. The first model suggests moderate but meaningful clustering of individual BMI within the intersectional strata (ICC = 12.4%). Compared with the population average (BMI = 26.07 Kg/m2), the stratum of cohabiting 18-35-year-old females with medium income and high education presents the lowest BMI (-3.7 Kg/m2), while cohabiting 36-64-year-old females with low income and low education show the highest BMI (+2.6 Kg/m2). In the second model, the ICC falls to 1.9%, suggesting the existence of only very small stratum specific interaction effects. We confirm the existence of a socioeconomic gradient in BMI. Compared with traditional analyses, the intersectional MAIHDA approach provides a better mapping of socioeconomic and demographic inequalities in BMI. Because of the moderate clustering, public health policies aiming to reduce BMI in Spain should not solely focus on the intersectional strata with the highest BMI, but should also consider whole population polices.

Los objetivos del Informe SESPAS 2014 son: a) analizar el impacto de la crisis en la salud y los comportamientos relacionados con la salud, en las desigualdades y en los determinantes de la salud en España; b) describir los cambios en el sistema sanitario español a raíz de las medidas adoptadas para afrontar la crisis y valorar su posible impacto en la salud; c) revisar la evidencia sobre el impacto de otras crisis y de la actual en otros países, así como las respuestas políticas; y d) proponer intervenciones y políticas alternativas a las llevadas a cabo hasta el momento con una perspectiva de salud poblacional y evidencia científica, que ayuden a mitigar el impacto en la salud y en las desigualdades en salud. El Informe se organiza en cinco bloques: 1) crisis económico-financiera y salud, causas, consecuencias y contextos; 2) impacto sobre los determinantes estructurales de la salud y las desigualdades en salud; 3) impacto en salud y en comportamientos relacionados con la salud, e indicadores para la monitorización; 4) impacto sobre los sistemas de salud; y 5) impacto en grupos específicos de población: infancia, personas mayores y población inmigrante. Hay evidencia de la relación de la crisis con la salud de la población española, con las desigualdades en salud, con los cambios en algunos estilos de vida y con el acceso a servicios sanitarios. La crisis ha impactado en muchos determinantes estructurales de la salud, y se identifican distintos grupos de población que son más vulnerables a los efectos de la crisis. Generalmente, las respuestas políticas sobre cómo gestionar las crisis no han tenido en cuenta la evidencia existente. La crisis puede facilitar la vulnerabilidad de las políticas públicas a la acción de las corporaciones, poniendo en riesgo la implantación de políticas saludables.

Objectives: In Spain, official information on waiting times for surgery is based on the interval between the indication for surgery and its performance. We aimed to estimate total waiting times for surgical procedures, including outpatient visits and diagnostic tests prior to surgery. In addition, we propose an alternative system to manage total waiting times that reduces variability and maximum waiting times without increasing the use of health care resources. This system is illustrated by three surgical procedures: cholecystectomy, carpal tunnel release and inguinal/femoral hernia repair. Methods: Using data from two Autonomous Communities, we adjusted, through simulation, a theoretical distribution of the total waiting time assuming independence of the waiting times of each stage of the clinical procedure. We show an alternative system in which the waiting time for the second consultation is established according to the time previously waited for the first consultation. Results: Average total waiting times for cholecystectomy, carpal tunnel release and inguinal/femoral hernia repair were 331, 355 and 137 days, respectively (official data are 83, 68 and 73 days, respectively). Using different negative correlations between waiting times for subsequent consultations would reduce maximum waiting times by between 2% and 15% and substantially reduce heterogeneity among patients, without generating higher resource use. Conclusion: Total waiting times are between two and five times higher than those officially published. The relationship between the waiting times at each stage of the medical procedure may be used to decrease variability and maximum waiting times.

Objective: This study empirically analyzes the effects of public information about the pharmaceutical R&D process on the market valuation of the sponsoring firm. We examined the market's response to scientific news and regulatory decisions about an antiobesity drug, rimonabant, and the effects on the sponsoring company (Sanofi-Aventis) and its incumbent competitors (Abbott and Roche). Methods: Event study methodology was used to test the null hypothesis of no market response. We covered the full life cycle of rimonabant (1994-2008), using a data set of daily closing price and volume. Results: The results suggest that scientific news in the initial stages of the drug R&D process (i.e., drug discovery, preclinical and clinical trials) had no significant effects. However, news related to regulatory decisions, such as recall or safety warning, had significant negative effects on the company's market value. No spillover/contagion effects on competitor firms were detected. Conclusion: Market reactions occur at the time when the regulator takes decisions about drugs. Scientific news, even those of high-impact, may pass unnoticed.Objetivo: Este trabajo analiza empíricamente los efectos de la información pública sobre la I+D en la valoración de mercado de una empresa farmacéutica. Examinamos la respuesta del mercado a las noticias científicas y a las decisiones de regulación de un medicamento para la obesidad, el rimonabant (Sanofi-Aventis), sobre la propia compañía y sobre sus competidoras (Abbott y Roche). Métodos: Se aplicó la metodología de estudio de eventos para contrastar la hipótesis de ausencia de respuesta del mercado. Cubrimos el ciclo de vida completo del rimonabant (1994-2008), utilizando una base de datos de precio y volumen de negociación diarios al cierre. Resultados: Los resultados sugieren que las noticias científicas en las etapas iniciales del proceso de I+D (es decir, el descubrimiento del fármaco y los ensayos preclínicos y clínicos) no tuvieron efectos significativos, pero las noticias relacionadas con las decisiones regulatorias (retirada o alerta de seguridad) sí tuvieron efectos negativos significativos en el valor de mercado de la empresa. No se detectaron efectos cruzados en las empresas competidoras. Conclusión: Las reacciones de los mercados se producen en el momento en que el regulador toma decisiones sobre medicamentos. Las noticias científicas, incluso las de gran impacto, pueden pasar desapercibidas.