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Introduction: CTLA-4/PD-1/PD-L1- directed immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are one of the standard therapies for the treatment of advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, some new classes of monoclonal antibodies are emerging as promising therapies for advanced NSCLC., Areas Covered: Therefore, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of the recently approved as well as emerging monoclonal antibody immune checkpoint inhibitors for the treatment of advanced NSCLC., Expert Opinion: Further and larger studies will be needed to explore the promising emerging data on new ICIs. Future phase III trials could allow us to properly assess the role of each immune checkpoints in the wider context of the tumor microenvironment and thus the best new ICIs to use, the best approach and the most effective subset of patients to select.

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Since prognosis of early-stage non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) remains dismal for common relapses after curative surgery, considerable efforts are currently focused on bringing immunotherapy into neoadjuvant and adjuvant settings. Previously, perioperative chemotherapy showed only a modest but significative improvement in overall survival. The presence of broad tumor neoantigens load at primary tumor prior to surgery as well as the known immunosuppressive status following resection represent the main rationale for immunotherapy in early disease. Several trials have been conducted in recent years, leading to atezolizumab and nivolumab approval in the adjuvant and neoadjuvant setting, respectively, and perioperative immunotherapy in NSCLC remains a field of active clinical and preclinical investigation. Unanswered questions in perioperative therapy in NSCLC include the optimal sequence and timing of chemotherapy and immunotherapy, the potential of combination strategies, the role of predictive biomarkers for patient selection and the choice of useful endpoints in clinical investigation.

Introduction : Approximately 5% of all diagnosed non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients harbor a genetic rearrangement between the ALK and EML4 genes, representing a specific molecular, histological and clinical subgroup (ALK+ NSCLC). To date, upfront treatment with ALK-tyrosine-kinase inhibitors (ALK-TKIs) has replaced chemotherapy in the first line setting for this subset of patients with excellent results. However, all treated patients eventually develop acquired resistance mechanisms to these agents (mainly resistance mutations) and experience progression of the disease. Areas covered : This paper provides a comprehensive state-of-the-art review about first-line approved ALK-TKIs, furthermore, it discusses the most promising ALK-TKIs under development designed to overcome resistance mutations and their implications. Expert opinion : Alectinib should currently be regarded as the standard of care for the first-line treatment of ALK+ NSCLC, considering its superior efficacy and safety profile. Regarding developing agents, lorlatinib and ensartinib appear to be the most promising ones, even though the data from their trials are still immature.

Introduction: Lung adenocarcinomas account for approximately 40-50% of all NSCLC (Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer) cases. In addition, lung adenocarcinomas can harbor several different genetic mutations, EGFR (Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor) being the most frequent one, accounting for approximately 5-15% of all the mutations in western patients and for approximately 40-55% in Asian patients; on the other hand, EGFR mutations are uncommon in squamous histology. Approximately 90% of EGFR mutations are represented by exon 19 in-frame deletion and by the L858R exon 21-point mutation, that confer sensitivity to EGFR TKI (Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors) treatment., Areas Covered: The authors comprehensively review the current state of the art with reference to EGFR+ NSCLC treatment and to discuss the possible future developments., Expert Opinion: Osimertinib must be considered the preferred first-line agent in EGFR+ advanced NSCLC patients thanks to its superior performances. With respect to acquired resistance mechanisms to osimertinib, the currently ongoing clinical trials will surely help us to better understand and tackle them. Globally, we strongly believe that a biomarker-driven sequential treatment algorithm is key in order to provide personalized, effective and durable therapies in the increasingly complex landscape of EGFR+ advanced NSCLC.

Introduction : One of the latest breakthroughs in the treatment of advanced Non Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) is represented by PD-1/PD-L1-targeting Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors (ICIs). However, only a limited subset of advanced NSCLC patients can receive first-line ICI monotherapy (advanced NSCLC patients without driver mutations and with a PD-L1 expression ≥50% or ≥1%) and naïve ICI-respondent patients represent an even more limited subgroup of patients, which eventually experience progression of disease after approximately 7-11 months. Therefore, different strategies are being evaluated to obtain a higher response rate and a more durable clinical response in this setting. A very encouraging one is represented by ICI-combination therapies, i.e. the use of an ICI combined to cytotoxic chemotherapy and/or another immunotherapeutic agent. Areas covered : This paper aims to assess currently available data from trials evaluating nivolumab-based first-line combination therapies. Expert opinion : Nivolumab-based combinations regimens will represent one of the standard treatments for naïve advanced NSCLC patients in a near future. However, in order to fully exploit these combination therapies, additional studies assessing potential predictive and/or prognostic biomarkers are required to better clarify which patients are more likely to benefit from these regimens, alongside with studies investigating safer and more durable second-line treatments.

The ICARUS trial is a phase II, open label, multicenter, single arm study conducted to investigate the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of a rechallenge treatment with the first-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) gefitinib in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients carrying activating mutations of the epidermal growth factor receptor ( EGFR ). The ICARUS trial enrolled 61 patients who were rechallenged with gefitinib at progression after second-line chemotherapy. Serum-derived circulating cell-free DNA (cfDNA) collected before the rechallenge from a cohort of 29 patients, was retrospectively analyzed for the EGFR exon 19 deletions and for the p.L858R and p.T790M single nucleotide variants (SNV). The analysis of cfDNA detected the same EGFR activating mutation reported in the tumor tissue in 20/29 patients, with a sensitivity of 69%. Moreover, a p.T790M variant was found in 14/29 patients (48.3%). The median progression-free survival (PFS) was 2.7 months for p.T790M positive patients (CI 95% 1.4-3.1 months) versus 3.5 months for the p.T790M negative patients (CI 95% 1.6-5.3 months), resulting in a statistically significant difference (Long rank test p = 0.0180). These findings confirmed the role of the p.T790M mutation in the resistance to first-generation TKIs. More importantly, our data suggest that TKI rechallenge should be guided by biomarker testing.

Introduction : Even with the currently recommended chemotherapeutic and immunotherapeutic treatment, the five year survival rate for advanced nonsquamous and squamous NSCLC without oncogenic drivers remains poor. However, several different chemo-immunotherapy combinations are presently being investigated - with favorable results- in order to increase the PFS and OS rates of these patients. Areas covered : Therefore, this paper aims to discuss the most promising trials investigating chemo-immunotherapy combinations and their present and future impact on advanced NSCLC treatment paradigms. Expert opinion : First line chemo-immunotherapy combinations are starting to and will certainly revolutionize the current paradigm of metastatic non small cell lung cancer treatment due to their superior performances - both in terms of PFS and OS - when compared to the actual standard of care platinum based chemotherapy. However, these associations are not devoid of problems, in fact, combining immunotherapy with chemotherapy obviously leads to enhanced treatment-related toxicities and to higher discontinuation rates; therefore these treatments should be administered carefully.

The chimeric protein echinoderm microtubule-associated protein-like 4-anaplastic lymphoma kinase, resulting from the rearrangement of the homonym genes, is one of the currently targetable oncogenic drivers in anaplastic lymphoma kinase-positive non-small-cell lung cancer. In fact, four first- and second-generation anaplastic lymphoma kinase tyrosine kinase inhibitors, crizotinib (PF-02341066), ceritinib (LDK378), alectinib (CH5424802), and brigatinib (AP26113), are presently approved for clinical practice; however, these agents are not devoid of complications and thus should be administered meaningfully. Furthermore, third-generation inhibitors are currently under development to overcome acquired resistance mechanisms inevitably resulting from treatment with first- and second-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Therefore, this article aims to provide a comprehensive state-of-the-art review about the pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, safety, and tolerability profiles of currently available and promising under-development anaplastic lymphoma kinase tyrosine kinase inhibitors.

Background: Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer mortality, being responsible for more than 1.6 million deaths each year worldwide and non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for approximately 85% of lung cancers; moreover, 10 to 15% of all NSCLCs harbor EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) activating mutations, being suitable for EGFR-Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors (TKI) molecular targeted therapy. However, EGFR+ NSCLCs gain acquired resistance to these agents, representing one of the key challenges for modern precision oncology., Objective: Therefore, this paper aims to provide an extensive state of the art review, alongside with hints about future perspectives., Conclusion: To date, in the light of the data from the FLAURA study, osimertinib represents the best first-line option in NSCLC patients with EGFR activating mutations; EGFR-TKI plus chemotherapy combination therapies, even though interesting, must still be considered investigational., (Copyright© Bentham Science Publishers; For any queries, please email at epub@benthamscience.net.)

Aims: Following the development for liquid biopsies of the SiRe next-generation sequencing (NGS) panel that covers 568 clinical relevant mutations in EGFR, KRAS, NRAS, BRAF, cKIT and PDGFRa genes, in this current study, we apply this small NGS panel on tissue samples of lung cancer., Methods: A total of 322 specimens were prospectively tested. Technical parameters were analysed on both cytological and histological samples. In a subset of 75 samples, the EGFR SiRe results were compared with those generated by the European Community (CE)-IVD EGFR assay on Idylla platform. Clinical outcomes of 11 patients treated, on the basis of SiRe results, were also evaluated., Results: Only 28 (8.7%) specimens failed to produce a library; out of the 294 remaining samples, a total of 168 somatic mutations were found. In nearly all instances (74/75-99%), the EGFR SiRe results were confirmed by Idylla. In general, SiRe analytical parameters were excellent. However, histological and cytological specimens differed in relation to average reads for sample, mean number of mapped reads, median read length and average reads for amplicon. Treatment outcome evaluation in 11 patients showed a partial response in 82 % (9/11) patients with a median progression-free survival of 340 days., Conclusions: The small gene panel SiRe is a clinically relevant tool useful to widespread the adoption of NGS in predictive molecular pathology laboratories., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2019. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Platinum-based chemotherapy currently represents standard treatment for advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Gemcitabine is one of the most promising agents currently in use in advanced NSCLC. As a single-agent, epirubicin, showed tumour response rates ranging from 17% to 36% in NSCLC. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the combination of gemcitabine and epirubicin in a phase I-II study. Thirty chemotherapy-naive patients with stage III B-IV NSCLC received gemcitabine at a fixed dose of 1000 mg/m2 on days 1 and 8 every 3 weeks; epirubicin was administered every 21 days on day 1 at the initial dose of 80 mg/m2 which was subsequently escalated. Neutropenia was dose-limiting toxicity since it occurred in 3 out of five patients receiving epirubicin at the dose of 110 mg/m2. An objective response was observed in 14/30 patients, including 2 (7%) complete responses and 12 (40%) partial responses. Median duration of response was 12 months (range: 3 to 53 + months). Median overall survival was 16 months (range: 4 to 55 + months). The combination of gemcitabine and epirubicin is well tolerated. While the observed activity of this combinated treatment matches that of platinum-based regimens, the duration of response and survival have been sufficiently promising to initiate a phase II trial which is currently under way.

The present study describes supportive care (SC) in patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), evaluating whether it is affected by concomitant chemotherapy, patient's performance status (PS) and age. Data of patients enrolled in three randomised trials of first-line chemotherapy, conducted between 1996 and 2001, were pooled. The analysis was limited to the first three cycles of treatment. Supportive care data were available for 1185 out of 1312 (90%) enrolled patients. Gastrointestinal drugs (45.7%), corticosteroids (33.4%) and analgesics (23.8%) were the most frequently observed categories. The mean number of drugs per patient was 2.43; 538 patients (45.4%) assumed three or more supportive drugs. Vinorelbine does not produce substantial variations in the SC pattern, while cisplatin-based treatment requires an overall higher number of supportive drugs, with higher use of antiemetics (41 vs 27%) and antianaemics (10 vs 4%). Patients with worse PS are more exposed to corticosteroids (42 vs 30%). Elderly patients require drugs against concomitant diseases significantly more than adults (20 vs 7%) and are less frequently exposed to antiemetics (12 vs 27%). In conclusion, polypharmacotherapy is a relevant issue in patients with advanced NSCLC. Chemotherapy does not remarkably affect the pattern of SC, except for some drugs against side effects. Elderly patients assume more drugs for concomitant diseases and receive less antiemetics than adults.

New triplet chemotherapy combinations are under investigation in advanced non small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Carboplatin, plus paclitaxel, plus gemcitabine is among the most active and promising regimens. The use of more aggressive chemotherapy in order to improve results can increase toxicity. Amifostine (WR-2721) reduces toxicity of radiotherapy and chemotherapy and protects selectively a number of normal, but not neoplastic, tissue. Based on this background, we performed a phase II study on carboplatin, plus paclitaxel, plus gemcitabine with amifostine support in advanced NSCLC. Patients received chemotherapy at the following dosage: carboplatin AUC 5, i.v., at day 1; paclitaxel 175 mg/m2, i.v. by 3-hour infusion, at day 1; gemcitabine 1000 mg/m2, i.v. by 3-hour infusion, at days 1 and 8; every 3 weeks for a maximum of 6 cycles. Amifostine was administered at the dose of 740 mg/m2, i.v., at day 1 of each cycle. Seventeen patients entered the study. They were prevalently male, median age was 62 years, PS (ECOG) was 0 in 10 cases (58.8%), 1 in 6 (35.3%) and 2 in 1 (5.9%). Histology was epidermoid in 8 cases (47%) and adenocarcinoma in 9 (53%). We observed 8 (47.5%) objective responses with 2 (11.7%) complete responses. Median time to progression and median survival were 24 and 36 weeks, respectively. Treatment was well tolerated. The main toxicity was as follows: grade 3 neutropenia, grade 2 thrombocytopenia and grade 3 anemia in one (5.8%) case; grade 2 peripheral neurologic toxicity in 3 (17.6%) patients; grade 2 cardiac toxicity (atrial fibrillation) in one case; and grade 3 respiratory toxicity (dispnoea) in one patient. These data indicate that this combination has promising activity and tolerability. A randomized trial comparing carboplatin plus paclitaxel, plus gemcitabine versus carboplatin, plus paclitaxel, plus gemcitabine, plus amifostine in advanced NSCLC is warranted.