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This article presents the results of an integrative review of the literature on domestic violence shelter practices, drawing upon 23 studies conducted in five countries from 25 peer-reviewed articles published between 2005 and 2020. The purpose of the review was to understand the impacts of intervention practices on abused women during their stay at a domestic violence shelter. Seven inclusion criteria were used to assess the studies included in the review. A thematic analysis revealed seven themes, divided into two main categories: formal interventions and practices related to shelter culture. These results highlight important implications for policy, research, and practices in domestic violence shelters that are discussed in this article., (© 2024 Springer Publishing Company, LLC.)

Background: Violence against women has numerous devastating effects. Exposure to violence not only impacts women but also affects their children both physically and psychosocially., Aims: The study aimed to evaluate the psychosocial problems of children living with their mothers in women's shelters from the mothers' perspective with a phenomenological approach., Methods: Utilizing the phenomenological research method, semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with 14 individuals in a women's shelter in a province in northern Türkiye. The criterion sampling method, a purposive sampling technique, was employed to select participants. Interviews continued until data saturation was achieved. All interviews were audio recorded and then transcribed, and thematic analysis was applied to analyze the data. The study adhered to the COREQ checklist for reporting., Results: The data analysis revealed four main categories (effects of violence on the mother, actions taken to protect children from violence, effects of violence and staying in a shelter on the child, and psychosocial needs for the protection of the child's mental health in the shelter) and 10 sub-themes (psychological effects, physical effects, social effects, domestic actions, organizational actions, psychological effects, physical effects, social effects, support system, and coping)., Conclusion: The study concluded that violence significantly impacted the mental, physical, and social well-being of both women and children, posing challenges to their ability to cope with the aftermath. Women exerted considerable effort in protecting their children from violence, and they needed psychosocial support to ensure the well-being of their children's mental health during their stay in shelters.

A qualitative study examined children's subjective perception of their mother's situation during their stay in shelters for battered women (SBW). Thirty-two children, aged 7-12 years, who were staying with their mothers in SBWs participated in this study. Thematic analysis revealed the following two core themes: children's perceptions and insights, and feelings that were related to their perceptions. The findings are discussed in light of the concepts of exposure to IPV as a lived trauma, and re-exposure to violence in new contexts, and the role of the relationship with the abused mother in shaping the child's well-being., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

The integration of women victims of gender-based violence (WVGBV) in the labor market is key to women's autonomy and empowerment. After pursuing some personal stability in different domains (emotional, physical, relational, etc.), these women require a further step toward recovery, which is often related to financial independence and, therefore, to their integration in the labor market. In this article, we describe the results of a study that focused on the actions aimed at integrating WVGBV into the labor market in the region of Andalusia (Spain). Based on a qualitative methodology, we collected the narratives and perspectives of the different actors involved in these processes (public administrations, nongovernmental organizations, the business world, and the WVGBV). The results revealed a series of deficiencies in social intervention methodologies that can sometimes lead to greater social exclusion. In conclusion, we believe that more participatory methodologies in their design, incorporating the views of woman themselves, are necessary., (© 2024 Springer Publishing Company.)

Concerns over the legal treatment of women who kill in response to domestic abuse have driven several jurisdictions to reform their homicide laws in recent years. This article examines how abused women are currently treated within the Australian legal system by analyzing homicide cases involving women prosecuted for killing an abusive partner in Australia from 2010 to 2020. The findings reveal the limitations of legal reforms to improve access to justice for abused women. Instead, there needs to be an increased focus toward pre-trial stages of criminal proceedings and to address persistent misconceptions and stereotypes associated with domestic abuse., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting InterestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Objectives: In recent years, the evidence regarding the characteristics of positive autobiographical memories in the field of posttraumatic stress disorder has gained increasing interest. The objective of this study was to add to the evidence in this area by analyzing the characteristics of positive memories in a specific trauma population, namely victims of intimate partner violence., Method: The study compared the narratives of highly positive events of 50 battered women (trauma-exposed group) with those of 50 nonexposed women (controls)., Results: The results show that, compared with the narratives of the control group, the narratives of the trauma-exposed group contained fewer references to positive emotions and achievement and more words related to the first person and mistreatment., Conclusions: The results support the hypothesis that the consequences of trauma can impact the characteristics of positive autobiographical memories. The resulting clinical implications point toward the possible relevance of adding work with positive memories to the clinical approach to trauma. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Violence against women is considered as one of the most serious social problems in all the societies. It is common that the abused women experience physical, psychological, and health problems, as well as reproductive health issues. Domestic violence affects women's health behaviors and ability to seek any form of health care. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between health-promoting behaviors and reproductive health needs in women experienced domestic violence. This cross-sectional study was conducted from May 5 to September 21, 2021, on 380 abused women. Cluster sampling was performed in health centers of Karaj. Data were collected using demographic survey questions, Domestic Violence Survey, Reproductive Health Needs of Domestic Violated Women scale, and health-promoting behaviors questionnaire. The mean (standard deviation) scores for reproductive health needs and health-promoting behaviors were 158.88 (20.24) and 131.08 (20.53), respectively. Psychological violence had the highest (69.5%) prevalence among all types and 37.6% of women reported severe violence. The results of Spearman's rank correlation coefficient test indicated that all dimensions of the reproductive health needs of abused women (men's participation, self-care, support and health services, and sexual and marital relationships) positively and significantly related to the total score and various dimensions of health-promoting behaviors (interpersonal relationship, health responsibility, physical activity, spiritual growth, nutrition, and stress management). The dimensions of health-promoting behaviors together can explain 21.6% of the changes in reproductive health needs based on linear regression. Violence is a global public concern and paying attention to the various health dimensions in abused women is an important aspect of the health policies. Developing health-promoting behaviors in abused women improves their reproductive health state and society as a whole.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a global health problem with different negative consequences for women's mental health. This pilot study aims to evaluate the efficacy of a multicomponent intervention for battered women using a comparison group design to analyze improvement in self-esteem, self-concept, self-efficacy, body dissatisfaction, and depression. The intervention consisted of an eight-session multicomponent intervention program based on the combination of group psychological therapy and adventure activities. The study sample originally consisted of 34 women IPV victims. Self-report psychological assessment was conducted during the pre-test and post-test while interviews were conducted during the post-test among the experimental group. The results of this pilot study suggest the efficacy of the cognitive-behavioral multicomponent intervention on self-esteem, self-efficacy, and depression in the IPV victims from the experimental group. We conclude that these findings support the efficacy of this psychological intervention program. Practical implications and suggestions are also discussed.

The study examined the factors that contribute to stay-leave decision-making of women who are domestic violence victims, focusing on background factors (origin, education, and occupational status); interactional factors (severity of violence, previous separations, and previous stays in a shelter); and social factors (social support and woman's expectations of the shelter). In addition, it examined the contribution of the interaction of woman's expectations of the shelter × psychological violence to the woman's decision to leave/stay with her partner. Six months after returning to the community, 221 women who had stayed in a shelter for at least 3 months were located: 92 were Israeli-born Jews (41.6%), 49 were Israeli-born Arabs (22.2%), 51 were Former Soviet Union immigrants (23.1%), and 29 were Ethiopian immigrants (13.1%). Of them, 56.6% reported returning to their partners, and 43.4% reported leaving their partners. Education, occupational status, psychological violence severity, previous shelter stays, familial support, and expectations of having concrete needs fulfilled by the shelter made a significant contribution to the woman's leaving the abusive relationship. Furthermore, Israeli Arab women were more likely to stay with their partners. Finally, the interaction of the expectation that concrete needs would be met × psychological violence made a significant contribution to leaving the relationship. The study emphasizes the need to expand the resources of domestically abused women and also highlights specific groups requiring special attention upon shelter entry: Arab women, women who previously stayed in shelters, and women characterized by a lack of resources and a high degree of psychological violence.

Recent research on the practices of justice operators with women victims of intimate partner violence has evidenced the existence of gender stereotypes and gender-blind practices in the Spanish legal system (Albertín et al., 2020; García Jiménez et al., 2019, 2020), as well as the graves consequences that such practices imply for these women. In this context, the present study explored the existence of a battered woman stereotype and its variation when the victim defends herself from the abuser. An opportunity sample of 505 undergraduates of Law, Psychology and other studies from two Spanish universities assessed some personality characteristics of a woman after watching a 1-minute-long silent video. The participants were randomly assigned to one of three observation conditions ("control", "victim" or "self-defense victim"), which differed in the previous information given about the target woman. The Principal Components Analysis reduced the information from the questionnaire to three dimensions: "brittleness" (α = .91), "positive" (α = .786), and "hostile" (α = .809). The MANOVA confirmed the battered woman stereotype and its modification when the victim reacts against the abuser in self-defense: in this case the attribution of brittleness decreases and the attribution of hostility increases. The type of academic training showed significant effects on the stereotype, this being more negative among Law students than among Psychology ones. Law students perceive the target woman in the "victim" condition more hostile and manipulator. As for the "self-defense" condition, Law students attribute less brittleness to the victim, and perceive her more manipulator and dangerous. The effect of the observer's gender on the stereotype is consistent with the previous literature. Implications for professional training and judicial practices are discussed.

Limited studies exist on women's mild traumatic brain injury received from episode of intimate partner violence. This study aims to identify the occurrence of intimate partner violence-related mild traumatic brain injury in Chinese women admitted to emergency units; and examine the physical, mental, and cognitive functioning of abused women with mild traumatic brain injury related to violent episodes. Eighty-six Chinese abused women presenting at emergency units in four major local hospitals in Hong Kong between January 2014 and December 2016 were recruited. They were admitted for the treatment of intimate partner violence-related physical injuries and were screened for traumatic brain injury by the emergency unit nurses at triage. Participants were assessed for traumatic brain injury based on the definition from US Center for Disease Control and Prevention, post-concussion physical symptoms, anxiety and depression, health-related quality of life, and cognitive functioning. Structured multiphase regression was used to examine the impact of intimate partner violence-related mild traumatic brain injury on physical, mental, and cognitive functioning of participants. We found that 24.4% of participants had intimate partner violence-related mild traumatic brain injury. There were significantly more severe post-concussion physical symptoms in abused women with intimate partner violence-related mild traumatic brain injury than those without mild traumatic brain injury (estimate = 18.7, 95% CI = 10.9 to 26.6, p < 0.001). The Mental Component Summary was also significantly associated with intimate partner violence-related mild traumatic brain injury (estimate = -7.9, 95% CI = -13.8 to -2.1, p = 0.009). Regarding cognitive functioning, the mean total test scores indicated that both groups were cognitively abnormal and there was no significant impact from mild traumatic brain injury. This study provides evidence on the impact of mild traumatic brain injury and implications in screening for mild traumatic brain injury and early intervention for improving quality of life in abused women., (© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

This study examines the nature of helpful responses received and barriers to seeking help following the experience of intimate partner violence among women of Filipina, Indian, and Pakistani descent ( N = 143) in the United States. Instead of aggregating women from diverse backgrounds, we investigated these groups of women separately. A content analysis found that while emotional support was the most helpful response, there were important variations by ethnicity and immigration position in the perceived helpfulness of various assistance resources as well as barriers to help-seeking. This study of disaggregated Asian immigrant groups enhances our understanding of both common and unique challenges faced by each immigrant group, which can inform development of socioculturally relevant intervention programs., (© Copyright 2021 Springer Publishing Company, LLC.)

Background: In April 2020, the United Nations predicted that the COVID-19 pandemic will have a 'calamitous' impact on the lives of women. This was based on concerns about an upsurge in Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) arising from increased opportunities for relational conflict due to forced co-existence and therefore additional time spent with abusive partners., Aim: Research has shown an increase in IPV during times of crisis. The COVID-19 pandemic has generated unprecedented circumstances and stress, and opportunities to do research to understand whether the COVID-19 pandemic impacted on IPV experiences were limited. Thus, the present study aimed to understand women's experiences of being in and leaving an abusive relationship during the COVID-19 pandemic., Methods: Individual, telephonic interviews were conducted with 16 women living in domestic violence shelters within three Provinces during South Africa's lockdown period., Results: Findings reveal that the public health measures implemented by the South African Government to curb the spread of the virus, may have placed vulnerable groups at increased risk of violence. Specifically, lockdown likely magnified the risk for escalation of abuse in families already experiencing IPV prior to COVID-19. The study highlights an IPV and COVID-19 relationship, showing that the gender insensitive pandemic control measures, such as stay at home orders and travel restrictions, likely placed women at risk of increased abuse. Given the recurrency of COVID-19 epidemic waves, attention must be given to gender disparities or many South African women may experience worse outcomes., Conclusion: This study reminds us that being ordered to stay at home is not always the safest option for women and thus, in a country with one of the highest levels of GBV, it becomes imperative to ensure that IPV safeguards are integrated into COVID-19 measures. It also becomes evident that COVID-19 requires enhanced ways of responding by paying attention to gender disparities., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Objective: Studies applying a betrayal trauma theory (BTT) framework to adult abuse have measured dependence by asking about the closeness of the victim-offender relationship. However, women's experiences of dependence may vary even in close victim-offender relationships, such as in the case of abuse perpetrated by intimate partners. This investigation assessed whether subgroups of women who were abused by intimate partners could be identified based on dependence characteristics. Further, we evaluated whether high-dependence subgroups were more likely to experience outcomes associated with BTT., Method: Using latent class analysis (LCA), we examined classes of dependence in a non-treatment-seeking community sample of 236 women who reported intimate partner abuse (IPA) to police. The validity of the dependence classes was evaluated from a BTT perspective using the classes to predict empirically supported betrayal-trauma outcomes., Results: Low-, medium-, and high-dependence subgroups emerged when dependence characteristics were analyzed using LCA. As hypothesized, greater dependence was linked with increased likelihood of women maintaining the relationship with the offender, higher self-report dissociation scores, and greater service disengagement. Counter to study hypotheses, dependence subgroups were unrelated to women's revictimization and self-reported memory for the target IPA incident 12 months later., Conclusion: Findings suggest that dependence can vary even in close adult relationships. Further, we identified links between dependence subgroups and outcomes predicted by BTT. Implications for BTT research and IPA victim support and intervention are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Objective: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression are comorbid consequences of intimate partner violence (IPV), and models explain this comorbidity via an intrinsic relationship between them. The current study posits that changes in both disorders may provide a clearer picture regarding the interrelations between them. We examined mutual contributions of changes in PTSD and depression to each other. The comorbidity was examined through known risk and protective factors related to both disorders among IPV survivors: perception of danger, helplessness, and peer support., Method: Sample included 146 female IPV survivors residing in 12 shelters in Israel between September 2009 and April 2014. Self-report questionnaires were completed upon entrance to the shelter and before departure. Analysis included 2 regressions, in which the change-score dependent variable of the first appeared as a regressor in the second and vice versa., Results: The regression designed to explore the contribution of changes in depression to PTSD-change explained 48% of the variance, while the regression designed to explore the contribution of changes in PTSD explained 67% of the variance. Changes in both PTSD (β = .14, p = .014) and depression (β = .014, p = .05) contributed similarly to changes in each other, suggesting covariance within IPV-related variables. In addition, the contribution of Arab ethnicity to changes in PTSD was significant., Conclusions: The current study's contribution is in identifying covariance between PTSD and depression along time within the context of variables related to IPV. Clinical implications are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Background : Understanding the drivers of intimate partner violence (IPV), perpetrated by men and experienced by women, is a critical task for developing effective prevention programmes. Objectives : To provide a comprehensive assessment of the drivers of IPV. Methods : A comprehensive review of the drivers of IPV, at the end of a six-year programme of research through the What Works to Prevent Violence Against Women and Girls Global Programme with reference to other important research in the field. Results : Broadly, we argue that IPV is driven by poverty, patriarchal privilege, and the normative use of violence in interpersonal relationships. These factors also increase childhood trauma, poor mental health and substance misuse, and poor communication and conflict in relationships, which in turn impact on IPV. Disability status, and contexts of armed conflict, or post-conflict, further reinforce and exacerbate these risks. We move beyond describing associations towards describing the causal pathways through which these factors operate to increase IPV. Conclusions : Specific recommendations about the future of further research on drivers of IPV include a greater focus on understanding the causal pathways from drivers to IPV and clearly delineating association from causality in studies, particularly for women and girls with disabilities, in armed conflicts, and adolescent girls and young women. To achieve this, we recommend extensive in-depth qualitative research, and complex quantitative modeling studies. Understanding drivers and causal pathways better will enable the identification of points of entry for the development of more effective IPV prevention interventions.

Background : Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) are a gold standard for evaluations in public health, economics and social sciences, including prevention of violence against women (VAW). They substantially reduce bias, but do not eliminate measurement error. Control arms often show change, but this is rarely systematically examined. Objective : We present a secondary analysis of data from the control arms of evaluations of VAW prevention programming to understand measurement variance over time, factors that may systematically impact this and make recommendations for stronger trial design and interpretation. Methods : We examine data from six RCTs and one quasi-experimental study, all of which used comparable measures. We look at change over time among control participants in prevalence of physical intimate partner violence (IPV), sexual IPV, and severe physical/sexual IPV, by participants' gender and study design (cohort vs. repeat cross-sectional). Results : On average, repeated assessments of past year IPV varied by 3.21 (95%Cis 1.59,4.83) percentage points for the studies with no active control arms. The prevalence at endline, as a proportion of that at baseline, on average differed by 17.7%. In 10/35 assessments from 4/7 studies, the difference was more than 30%. We did not find evidence of the Hawthorne effect or repeat interview bias as explanations. Our findings largely supported non-differential misclassification (measurement error) as the most likely error and it was a greater problem for men. Conclusion s: Control arms are very valuable, but in VAW research their measures fluctuate. This must be considered in sample size calculations. We need more rigorous criteria for determining trial effect. Our findings suggest this may be an absolute change in prevalence of 7% and proportionate change of 0.4 or more (especially for studies in populations with lower IPV prevalence (<20%)). More elaborate pre-defined outcomes are necessary for determining impact (or possible harms) of VAW prevention interventions.

This study aimed to revise and validate a Chinese version of Psychological Maltreatment of Women Inventory (C-PMWI). In the preparation phase, the PMWI was first revised for the possible cultural differences between Chinese and non-Chinese women. Supplementary items on use of electronic devices as a contemporary form of monitoring were added. Forward and back translated items were reviewed by a panel of intimate partner violence (IPV) experts, resulting in the scale-level content validity index of 0.94. Cognitive debriefing was conducted to confirm comprehensibility. The newly revised measure was administered to the sample of 1,198 Chinese women, recruited from community centers and shelters in Hong Kong. Exploratory factor analysis conducted on data from half the sample revealed a two-factor structure similar to the original English version: emotional-verbal and dominance-isolation. This structure was verified by confirmatory factor analysis with the other half of the sample. Known-groups validity was demonstrated by significant differences in scores between women with different relationship histories. Moderate-to-strong correlations of the C-PMWI with other forms of IPV, controlling behaviors, relationship satisfaction, and depression established convergent validity. The C-PMWI showed good internal consistency, with Cronbach's alpha >.9 for the entire scale and each subscale. The intraclass correlation across administrations 2 weeks was >.9, demonstrating test-retest reliability. The use of the comprehensive validation procedures in the present study provided evidence for both cultural appropriateness and satisfactory psychometric properties of the C-PMWI. The C-PMWI shows promise as a useful instrument for research and clinical practice with Chinese women.

Background: During the COVID-19 pandemic, incipient data have revealed an increase in violence against women (VAW)., Objective: To analyze the existing scientific literature on strategies and recommendations to respond to VAW during the implementation of social distancing measures in response to the COVID-19 pandemic., Search Strategy: An integrative review was conducted based on articles published between December 2019 and June 2020. Suitable articles were identified from the PubMed, SciELO, and LILACS databases, using relevant terms., Selection Criteria: Eligible studies included opinion and primary research articles describing the dynamics of VAW during quarantine and in the context of the restrictive measures taken during the COVID-19 pandemic and proposing recommendations to respond to this issue., Data Collection and Analysis: Data were extracted from eligible publications and qualitative synthesis was used., Main Results: The 38 articles included in the study showed that some factors increasing women's vulnerabilities to violence were exacerbated during the social distancing and lockdown period. Health professionals are essential for screening and responding to VAW during the pandemic., Conclusions: Strategies must include integrated actions aiming to prevent and respond to violence during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. These must be designed based on lessons learned from previous public health emergencies., (© 2020 International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics.)

More than 1,800 programs exist in the United States, providing not only shelter but also transitional housing, advocacy and support, transportation, legal aid, and group and individual counseling for women who have experienced intimate partner violence (IPV). Shelter and transitional housing provide critical support for survivors, but have also been critiqued for having too many restrictive rules and code of conduct. More information is needed about the impact of rules and agency policy on women seeking services in IPV residential settings. This qualitative study explored the central research question, "How do rules shape IPV residential environment and survivor experiences in services?" Twenty-five women in four programs in two states who were currently residing in IPV residential services were interviewed about their experiences. Data were analyzed using grounded theory methods. Findings indicated rules affect individual survivors' and families' experiences and responses in services and of healing from IPV (micro), the relationships among residents and between residents and staff (mezzo), and participants' relationships with the agency as an institution and the help-seeking community (macro). An intriguing paradox is noted in that at their best, rules provide stability and motivation for some survivors. At their worst, rules create isolation and force exit from shelter into unsafe circumstances, causing a ripple effect of impact. Implications include the need to restructure rules and policies collaboratively with residents, and reduce the amount of rules used in services. Addressing rules will better enable IPV services to be survivor-centered and trauma-informed, ultimately increasing safety and healing.

Background: Disrespect and abuse are recognized for the restricting impact of women from seeking maternal care, psychological humiliations, grievances, and unspoken sufferings on women during childbirth. Individual primary studies are limited in explaining of extent of disrespect and abusive care. Hence, this review considers the synthesis of comprehensive evidence on the extent, contributing factors, and consequences of disrespectful and abusive intrapartum care from the women's and providers' perspectives in Ethiopia., Methods: Articles had been systematically searched from the databases of PubMed, Cochrane Library, POPLINE, Google Scholar, HINARI, African Journals Online, and WHO Global Health Library. A qualitative and quantitative synthesis was performed using the Bowser and Hill landscape analytical framework., Result: Twenty-two studies comprised of the 16 quantitative; 5 qualitative and one mixed studies were included. The most repeatedly dishonored right during facility-based childbirth in Ethiopia was nondignified care, and the least commonly reported abuse was detention in health facilities. These behaviors were contributed by normalization of care, lack of empowerment and education of women, weak health system, and lack of training of providers. Women subjected to disrespectful and abusive behavior distanced themselves from the use of facility-based childbirth-related services and have endured psychological humiliations., Conclusion: Disrespectful and abusive care of women during childbirth is repeatedly practiced care in Ethiopia. This result specifically described the contributing factors and their effects as a barrier to the utilization of facility-based childbirth. Therefore, to overcome this alarming problem, health systems and care providers must be responsive to the specific needs of women during childbirth, and implementing policies for standard care of respectful maternity care must be compulsory. In addition, observational, qualitative, and mixed types of studies are required to provide comprehensive evidences on disrespect and abusive behavior during childbirth in Ethiopia., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (Copyright © 2020 Meresa Berwo Mengesha et al.)

Intimate partner violence continues to be a widespread and serious problem. African American women experience a high lifetime prevalence of physical intimate partner violence, but resources for them are often scarce. This mixed-methods analysis of telephone survey responses found that women who were African American, had less education, and were dissatisfied with criminal justice responses to an abusive incident were less likely to seek personal protection orders (PPOs). The qualitative analysis showed that many women did not seek POs because their assessment of their partners indicated it was not needed or increased risk. Practical obstacles in obtaining orders were noteworthy.

Studies on wife abuse in Bangladesh predominantly include the mainstream Bengali population, although there are at least 27 ethnic minority communities including a few 'female-centered' matrilineal groups living in the country. This study explored ethnic differences in the attitudinal acceptance of wife abuse among matrilineal ethnic minority Garo, patrilineal ethnic minority Santal, and mainstream patriarchal Bengali communities in rural Bangladesh. Adopting a cross-sectional design, the study included 1,929 women and men randomly selected from 24 Garo, Santal, and Bengali villages. Multivariate Poisson regression was performed to predict the number of contextual events, where the respondents attitudinally endorsed wife abuse. Of the sample, 33.2% were from Garo, 33.2% from Santal, and 33.6% from the Bengali communities. The acceptance of wife abuse was high in the sample; specifically, 34.1% of the respondents accepted physical wife abuse, 67.5% accepted emotional abuse, and 71.6% accepted any abuse (either physical or emotional) at least on one contextual reason provided in a 10-item scale. The mean for accepting any abuse was 3.0 (SD = 2.8), emotional abuse 2.3 (SD = 2.2), and physical abuse 0.8 (SD = 1.4). The study showed that the rates of accepting any abuse and physical abuse were respectively 16% and 56% lower among Garo as well as 14% and 33% lower among Santal than that of the Bengali community. Data also revealed that individual level factors like younger age, higher education, prestigious occupation as well as family level factors such as higher income, female mobility, and female family authority were inversely associated with the acceptance of wife abuse in the sample. It appears that the gender regime of a society has a great influence on the attitudes toward wife abuse. We argue that a comprehensive socio-cultural transformation of the patriarchal societies into a gender equal order is imperative for the prevention of widespread wife abuse in the country., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

The Women's Experience with Battering (WEB) scale is a self-report instrument that uses a 10-item Likert-type scale to measure IPV victims' cognitive and affective experience of battering. This study aimed to validate the Chinese version of the WEB scale using gender-neutral questions, Experience of Battering Scale (Chinese) (EBS-C), to assess the psychological vulnerability of victims of intimate partner violence (IPV). The study adopted a range of methods, including translation and back translation, expert reviews, cognitive debriefing, and test-retest reliability assessment. The EBS-C was validated in a purposive convenience sample of 718 Chinese-speaking participants (male = 362; female = 356) aged 18-24 (mean age = 21.4) in Hong Kong. The results of CFA showed a good model fit: CFI = .97, TLI = .96, RMSEA = .05, SRMR = .03. The EBS-C was also found to be significantly associated with the Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2; r = .13-.17, p < .01), depression (BDI-II: r = .15, p < .01), anxiety (GAD-7: r = .17, p < .01), interpersonal support (ISEL-12: r = -.27, p < .01), relationship satisfaction (RAS: r = -.36, p < .01), and self-esteem (RSES: r = -.22, p < .01). The study demonstrated the EBS-C to be a reliable and valid measure for assessing the psychological vulnerability of IPV victims. It is thus useful for identifying the risks such individuals face by assessing their experience of fear, danger, and disempowerment in the intimate relationship relative to abusive incident-based measures alone. The EBS-C will also be useful for developing effective treatments to address the psychological vulnerability resulting from IPV and will facilitate cross-cultural comparative research aimed at enriching our knowledge of IPV victimization., Competing Interests: The author has declared that no competing interests exist.

A heightened risk of domestic violence has been associated with infection-reducing measures undertaken by governments during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychiatric services can play a key role in addressing this issue by (a) addressing certain risk factors for perpetration of domestic violence through, for example, assertive identification and management of substance misuse; (b) providing support, advocacy and treatment services for victims of domestic violence; and (c) multi-agency working to strengthen medical and social responses to domestic violence. At a time like this, it is important that multi-disciplinary mental health services are strengthened, rather than depleted, in order to address the pressing issues at hand., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest GG is Chair of the Faculty of Forensic Psychiatry at the College of Psychiatrists of Ireland; the views expressed are his own. BDK has no conflicts of interest to declare., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Women who have experienced intimate partner violence (IPV) have significant detrimental physical and mental health consequences associated with the violence as well as numerous barriers to health-care and social service utilization. Service integration offers a solution to help support women who have experienced violence overcome negative health consequences as well as barriers to system navigation and use. The purpose of this scoping review was to examine research activity pertaining to IPV and primary health-care and women's shelters integration. Namely, the aim was to determine the extent, range, and nature of research related to the effects of integrating primary health-care services and women's shelters. Nineteen sources were identified as potentially relevant from four electronic databases, with four articles meeting the inclusion criteria of integration of primary health-care and women's shelter services where outcomes were presented related to the efficacy of primary health-care received and integration. Numerical analysis revealed considerable homogeneity among articles in terms of methodological approaches, patient populations, and type of integration. Inductive thematic content analysis revealed three themes that resulted from integration: (1) increased access to and acceptability of services, (2) bridge back to health-care, and (3) decreasing future health-care burden. The findings from this scoping review represent a first attempt to summarize the literature, indicate a need for additional research, and suggest implications for practice.

Aim: To investigate nurses' knowledge, attitudes and practices related to intimate partner violence among women in Saudi Arabian healthcare settings., Background: There is a global focus on abuse experiences in clinical settings. However, nurses' practice in managing intimate partner violence patients in Saudi healthcare settings has not yet been examined., Introduction: Intimate partner violence is a health issue that can lead to mortality and morbidity. It has recently received attention in an Arabian context. Thus, scrutinizing nurses' role in responding to intimate partner violence patients is needed to fill a current gap., Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with a convenience sample of 114 nurses from two hospitals in Saudi Arabia using a questionnaire., Results: Minimal previous intimate partner violence training was reported, as 63% of nurses had not received training related to intimate partner violence, and 52% believed that they did not receive adequate training to respond to intimate partner violence survivors. The results show that nurses had both low perceived knowledge and low preparedness in managing intimate partner violence, and only had basic intimate partner violence knowledge. Results indicated that nurses did not have appropriate attitudes towards intimate partner violence. The majority were not aware about intimate partner violence protocols or policies in their institutions. Only 2.6% had diagnosed intimate partner violence in the last six months., Conclusion: There were gaps in nurses' perceived preparedness, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours. There was also limited training and preparation for nurses to assess and address intimate partner violence., Implications for Nursing and Health Policy: The study suggests the need for clear institutional health policies related to detecting, responding to, and preventing intimate partner violence. Guidelines about integrating intimate partner violence in nursing curricula and implementing in-service training should be developed and implemented. A multi-level intervention that enables nurses to respond to intimate partner violence is also needed., (© 2020 International Council of Nurses.)

Through the use of purposive sampling and the grounded theory method, this qualitative study delineates factors that promote adaptation and end family patterns of violence and dysfunction in the case of resilient adult daughters of abused women ( N = 29). Coping processes included distancing from the family, seeking understanding and acceptance, and finding meaning and purpose. Motivating factors included learning what not to do from their families and breaking the cycle of violence and dysfunction from occurring in their adult lives. We learn how daughters of abused women may create a life informed, rather than directed, by their childhood adversity.

This pilot study examined whether an evidence-based intervention for preventing HIV that was adapted for women residing in domestic violence shelters improved residents' HIV knowledge and condom use self-efficacy. The intervention acceptability, feasibility, and fidelity were also assessed. Seven domestic violence shelter workers facilitated the intervention to 32 shelter residents. Residents had significantly higher HIV knowledge and condom use self-efficacy after the intervention. Residents found the intervention highly acceptable. Intervention facilitators generally agreed that the intervention was acceptable and feasible. Facilitators taught the intervention mostly as suggested, but with some changes. Study implications are discussed.

Taking action among women in violent relationships appears to involve sudden changes and reversals after periods of building stress, suggesting that decision making is a "catastrophic" phenomenon. This study sought to determine whether readiness-to-change is best modeled as a cusp catastrophic (CCM) phenomenon among women in violent relationships. A total of 143 women who experienced violence in the previous month completed baseline and end-of-study interviews assessing her hope, coping strategies, social network, and readiness-for-action (seeking help, taking legal action, and leaving) concerning the violence. Daily assessments of his violent behavior, forgiveness sought and given, and her perceived need-for-action were collected via telephone Interactive Voice Response for 8 weeks. Using regression analysis, the impact of factor-analyzed asymmetry (violence burden) and bifurcation (hope and cope, support, forgiveness, and number of children) variables on the outcomes (readiness-for-help, legal action, and leaving) was modeled, comparing the CCM against linear models to determine which model accounts for the most variance in each outcome. Cusp catastrophe models for all three actions accounted for more variance than either linear model comparison, but violence burden was only relevant to readiness-for-help and different bifurcation variables were at work for each action. While forgiveness was an important bifurcation factor in readiness-for-help and number of children served as the bifurcation factor for readiness-for-legal-action, readiness-to-leave was more complex with both number of children and hope-and-cope as bifurcation factors. Not only should we expect sudden changes in readiness but efforts to facilitate decision making should focus on addressing the bifurcation factors that may distort her interpretation of reality.

Divorce rates continue to rise, especially in urban centers, which in turn contributes to increasing numbers of women who remarry. While remarriage is one of the only options for survival for divorced women, especially those from low socioeconomic status, remarriage also brings with it increased stressors of financial strain and the strain of blended families. This study tested the hypothesis that remarried women compared with first-time married and divorced women are at increased risk for domestic violence. The sample was drawn from the Cambodia Demographic and Health Survey, consisting of 1,560 women with the average age of 31.64. Results showed that 20% of women reported emotional violence and 14%, physical violence. Based on hierarchical multiple regressions, this study found that remarried women were more likely to experience physical and emotional abuse than women in their first marriage or women who remain divorced/not in union. Further interaction analyses showed that domestic violence varies depending on place of residence, number of children younger than 5 years, partners' education, and wealth index. Rural residents who were in poorest and poorer groups and urban residents in their poorer and middle groups of their wealth index showed high risk of domestic violence. Remarried women with two or three children younger than 5 years showed highest risk of domestic violence. Additional three-way interaction analysis revealed that remarried women residing in rural/urban areas with a spouse having no education and/or primary level of education were at highest risk of domestic violence. The study lends support to the structural role of the power of male dominance on women's social and emotional well-being. This study suggested that to reduce men's perceived domination, structural intervention that includes implementing gender-responsive curriculum in formal education, as well as strengthening domestic violence law enforcement would help reduce domestic violence against women.

Background: Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) survivors are at high risk of sexual revictimization. At the same time, some survivors report positive transformations resulting from the traumatic experience, a phenomenon known as post-traumatic growth (PTG). Although one might expect PTG to be related to reduced risk of revictimization, the link between PTG and revictimization has not been investigated. Furthermore, mixed findings regarding the associations between PTG and distress imply that the effects of PTG are multifaceted. One potential explanation may be that dissociation shapes the implications of PTG, making it more like denial than adaptive processing of traumatic experience. This longitudinal study explores (a) the associations between PTG and sexual revictimization and (b) the moderating role of dissociation within the associations between PTG and revictimization., Method: Participants were 111 female CSA survivors who participated in a 6-month efficacy trial evaluating the effectiveness of group psychotherapy for CSA survivors with HIV risk factors., Results: Dissociation moderated the associations between PTG and revictimization: Whereas PTG had nonsignificant effects on revictimization in participants with low dissociation, it predicted elevated levels of revictimization in participants with high dissociation., Conclusions: Reports of PTG among some CSA survivors might mirror dissociative beliefs that increase their risk of revictimization.

Although the process of leaving abusive relationships has received increased research attention, preparing to leave is still largely understudied. Despite an emphasis on safety planning, not all women take active steps to prepare, and the characteristics and experiences of those who do or do not actively prepare are unknown. We address this gap with a secondary data analysis of interviews with 25 abused mothers in the process of leaving. All women initially engaged in mental planning, where they had emotionally disconnected from their partners. Using constructivist grounded theory techniques, we identified two distinct groups: those whose mental planning led to active planning ( n = 11), and those who moved directly from mental planning to leaving ( n = 14) with little time or need to actively plan. The groups differed on several individual, relationship, and child factors, which may have impacted the ability or decisions to prepare. This study supports the feminist view that survivors are not helpless victims but active agents who strategize for safety. Those who engage solely in mental planning still prepare to leave, even if they do not engage in active planning. Practitioners should consider factors affecting preparations and acknowledge mental planning as a necessary effort in leaving.

This article presents qualitative findings on women's knowledge and perceptions of services available to victims of domestic violence in Ghana. In addition, the challenges to access of service and service delivery are explored. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 10 female residents of Sowutuom, a periurban community in Accra, Ghana. An additional three semistructured interviews were also conducted with local service providers in Accra. Results showed that awareness among respondents of available services was low. The majority of women had heard of the Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unit of the Ghana Police Service, though they had limited knowledge of the kind of support provided by this service provider. In addition, most women expressed doubt in the ability of these services to adequately handle cases of intimate partner violence. This study demonstrates that more educational campaigns need to be carried out to raise awareness among Ghanaians on domestic violence and the formal interventions available in the country.

Background: Violence against women (VAW) is a major global public health problem with serious consequences. We aimed to estimate the prevalence of VAW aged 18-45 yr in a slum area in Helwan, Cairo, to assess their knowledge and perspective regarding VAW, and to assess their help-seeking practice in response to violence., Study Design: Cross-sectional design., Methods: This community based survey was carried out among 657 women in a slum area in Helwan, Cairo, Egypt in 2018. Data about the women's knowledge about VAW, exposure to different forms of violence and their frequency, women's perspective towards violence, and their healthcare-seeking behavior on exposure to violence were collected using an interviewing questionnaire., Results: The prevalence of exposure to at least one type of intimate partner violence (IPV) was 59.1% with psychological violence ranking 1st followed by physical violence. Most women exposed to IPV reported that they have never asked for healthcare upon exposure to violence. One third had good knowledge. Most had favorable perspective against VAW., Conclusion: Most women suffered some kind of violence. They, however, did not seek help most of the time.

This article is based on the first Scottish study of survivor perspectives of forced marriage. In-depth interviews were conducted with eight survivors. Our thematic analysis identified five key themes: understandings of forced marriage, the "grooming" process, betrayal, legal responses, and women's resistance. Utilizing Stark's framework of coercive control and Kelly's concept of conducive contexts, we illuminate hitherto under-appreciated dynamics of forced marriage: (a) the conceptualization of forced marriage as a process rather than an event, (b) the role of mothers within patriarchal contexts, and (c) betrayals of family and services as compounding long-term adverse effects of forced marriage.

This essay uses gender as a category of historical and sociological analysis to situate two populations-boxers and victims of domestic violence-in context and explain the temporal and ontological discrepancies between them as potential brain injury patients. In boxing, the question of brain injury and its sequelae were analyzed from 1928 on, often on profoundly somatic grounds. With domestic violence, in contrast, the question of brain injury and its sequelae appear to have been first examined only after 1990. Symptoms prior to that period were often cast as functional in specific psychiatric and psychological nomenclatures. We examine this chronological and epistemological disconnection between forms of violence that appear otherwise highly similar even if existing in profoundly different spaces., (Copyright © 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Advocacy services, for victims and survivors, are at the core of our response to Intimate Partner Violence (IPV). The survivor contact element of IPV perpetrator programs is recognized as a necessary safety measure for their operation. Within the context of equivocal evaluations of these programs, and the impetus to find opportunities to enhance their effectiveness, this study report explores the service user perspective on survivor contact work. In-depth semi-structured interviews were completed with 18 perpetrators and 18 survivors involved in three Irish-based programs, and findings were analyzed using grounded theory principles. Almost without exception, survivors were positive about their engagement with an outreach service. There was evidence to suggest that perpetrator program outreach services do reach survivors who may not ordinarily make contact with an advocacy service. In general terms, survivors felt validated as survivors, they felt supported, they learned about abusive behaviors and some saw the service as a monitor of what their partner was saying during group work. However, some survivors described their fear that any reports of ongoing abuse, which they offered, would attract reprisals from their partner or the attentions of child protection services. More determined application of criminal justice measures, and enhanced resourcing of the survivor contact element of these programs, should be considered., (© Copyright 2019 Springer Publishing Company, LLC.)

The epidemic of violence disproportionately affects women, including Black women. Black women survivors of violence have been found to face multiple safety and health issues such as depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, HIV, and poor reproductive health. Many health issues co-occur, and this co-occurrence can be associated with additional safety and health-related challenges for survivors. Consequently, there is a need for multicomponent interventions that are designed to concurrently address multiple health issues commonly faced by Black survivors of violence. This systematic review of literature determines the efficacy of various strategies used in the existing evidence-based multicomponent interventions on violence reduction, promotion of reproductive health, reduction in risk for HIV, reduction in levels of stress, and improvement in mental health. Sixteen intervention studies were identified. Examples of components found to be efficacious in the studies were safety planning for violence, skill building in self-care for mental health, education and self-regulatory skills for HIV, mindfulness-based stress reduction for reducing stress, and individual counseling for reproductive health. Although some strategies were found to be efficacious in improving outcomes for survivors, the limitations in designs and methods, and exclusive focus on intimate partner violence calls for more rigorous research for this population, particularly for Black survivors of all forms of violence. There is also need for culturally responsive multicomponent interventions that account for diversity among Black survivors.

Background: Sexual violence exists everywhere in the world. It depends mainly on the cultural and religious norms conveyed in the various societies. This is a neglected area of research. Available data are insufficient, especially in Arab-Muslim context., Methods: In this paper, we comprehensively review the scientific literature in order to clarify the cultural, religious and legal aspects of the concept of sexual violence against women in Tunisia, and ask the question of the urgent need to put in place strategies to counter this problem., Results: The National Office for Family and Population published in 2011 the results of the national survey on violence against women in Tunisia, including data on sexual violence and its impact on women's health and well-being. According to this survey, 14.2% of women reported having been sexually abused by an intimate partner during their lifetime and 9.0% reported having experienced it during the last 12 months. One out of every six Tunisian women has been the victim of a sexual violence in a conjugal setting. More men than women legitimized violence against women in contexts where family control, especially conjugal control, is exercised over them. In a study examining the impact of culture and religion on experiences and sexual practice of women in Tunisian society, the majority of respondents thought that sexuality in women was a religious duty and that they do not have the right to refuse their husbands or to rebel. Thus, women would be doubly sanctioned having neither the right to express their desire nor not to respond to their husband's desire. A survey of a representative sample of Tunisian women found that 56.9% of the participants reported being victims of domestic violence, particularly sexual violence (10.7%) consisting mainly of rape and sodomy, at least once in their lifetime. This survey showed that those victims expressed dissatisfaction with overall quality of life. Moreover, contrary to Western literature, sexual violence was the least reported form of violence by teenage girls in Tunisian schools. Indeed, cultural values of modesty, virginity and honor are socially much more demanded for girls, in Arab countries in general, reinforcing staggering silence and inaction around violence experienced by school-aged adolescents. In Tunisian society, the cultural "solution" to rape wants the woman to marry her rapist which safeguards her family's integrity by legitimizing the union., Conclusion: Sexual violence has detrimental effects on female victims' physical and mental health. Even if the information on this form of violence is not easy to obtain in our environment, and that rates of subjects reporting sexual violence in their lifetimes are not important, the problem of sexual violence must be considered as a public health problem requiring urgent interventions and a greater institutional will., (Copyright © 2018 L'Encéphale, Paris. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

The objective of this article is to analyze how women who have been victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) position themselves in relation to the image of the "ideal victim" and how gender is constructed in that positioning. There is a need for a gender analysis framework to understand how various forms of femininity are constructed and how narratives linked to this can either maintain a woman in an abusive relationship or encourage her to leave. Christie's theory of the "ideal victim" and Connell's gender theory are applied in this study, in which the narratives of 14 female IPV victims in Sweden are analyzed using a narrative method. Three strings of narratives, representing different forms of femininity, are revealed in the material. The master narrative of the ideal victim reveals a form of femininity that describes women as inferior in relation to men. In the alternative narrative, the narrator positions herself as inferior in relation to the offender but discusses resistance. She describes herself as a caring mother who risks a great deal to protect her children. In the counter-narrative, the narrator positions herself as strong and independent in relation to the offender and as a strong and caring mother. The positioning of different narrators may shift depending on the duration of the relationship and the type of violence. The narrator may also take different positions during different phases of the story. However, the dominant narrative among the narrators is the story of the caring mother, which may have several functions and can partially be understood as a sign of the strong discourse of motherhood in society. The study contributes to a more profound understanding of the complexity related to women's own positioning and reveals that awareness is required when attempting to understand the narratives and behavior of abused women.

Objective: To describe the perspectives of women who experienced intimate partner violence (IPV) during pregnancy through a qualitative, interpretive metasynthesis., Data Sources: We searched 12 electronic databases to identify articles on qualitative studies pertaining to women's experiences of IPV during pregnancy. We searched Academic Search Complete, AgeLine, CINAHL Complete, Family Studies Abstracts, MEDLINE, PsycARTICLES, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, PsycINFO, Social Work Abstracts, Health Source-Consumer Edition, Health Source-Nursing/Academic Edition, and Humanities Full Text for articles published from 2008 through 2018., Data Extraction: We used inclusion and exclusion criteria to identify eight reports of qualitative studies that contained direct quotations in which women described their experiences of IPV., Data Synthesis: We used a methodologic reduction to provide a theoretical context that helped us synthesize the data to five key themes: Pregnancy Escalates Abuse, Concern for Unborn Fetus, Importance ofSupport, My Child Saved Me, and Pregnancy Is a Catalyst for Reflection., Conclusion: The results of our synthesis illustrate the unique perspectives of women who experienced IPV during pregnancy. Understanding these experiences can help health care providers assist pregnant women through enhanced screenings and education. Health care providers can also help women identify resources for emotional and financial support as they determine the best courses of action for themselves and their children., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

In Spain, a country of great cultural diversity, there is an increasing demand for psychosocial care for victims of gender-based violence. The objective is to describe the psychosocial profile of these women residing in the Autonomous Community of Galicia. In a sample ( n  = 40) of victims of intimate partner violence, it was found a high incidence of PTSD, depression, and low self-esteem associated with greater severity of PTSD and depression. A prolonged relationship increases the types of violence experienced, which is associated with particular psychosocial conditions that are analyzed quanti-qualitatively in order to recommend interventions consistent with the problems detected.

Background: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is one of the most significant health challenges facing women today. Abuse is a serious gendered issue also affecting the health of women. Despite beginning evidence that abuse may increase the risk of CVD among women, causal pathways linking abuse to CVD have received little attention. Our purpose was to test Scott-Storey's conceptual model showing direct and indirect pathways through which lifetime abuse severity may affect women's CVD risk., Methods: Using data collected from a community sample of 227 Canadian women who had left an abusive partner, we conducted structural equation modeling with latent growth curve analysis using a phantom variable approach to test the direct effects of severity of lifetime abuse on CVD risk (indicated by measures of systolic and diastolic blood pressure) as well as its indirect effects through CVD risk behaviors and through women's initial level of depressive symptoms and the observed rate of change in their depressive symptoms over time., Results: Women in this sample had above average CVD risk factors (i.e., smoking, overweight/obesity, depressive symptoms, high blood pressure) in comparison to women in the general population. Further, CVD risk behaviors increased with severity of lifetime abuse and remained present long after leaving the abusive relationship. Results of the tested model provide preliminary evidence supporting many of the hypothesized pathways by which severity of lifetime abuse can increase CVD risk among women; the model fit the data reasonably well explaining 41% of the variance in CVD risk., Conclusions: Findings support the growing recognition of the long-term effects of lifetime abuse on cardiovascular health, suggest important implications for clinicians working with women, and provide a novel approach for studying the concept of cumulative lifetime abuse through the use of a phantom variable.

This study examined if abuse during childhood, rape in adulthood, and loss of resources predict a woman's probability of reporting symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and whether resource loss moderates the association between reporting childhood abuse and PTSD symptoms. The sample included 767 women and was collected in publicly funded primary-care settings. Women who reported having been abused during childhood also reported more resource loss, more acute PTSD symptoms, and having suffered more adult rape than those who reported no childhood abuse. Hierarchical logistic regression yielded a two-variable additive model in which child abuse and adult rape predict the probability of reporting or not any PTSD symptoms, explaining 59.7% of the variance. Women abused as children were 1 to 2 times more likely to report PTSD symptoms, with sexual abuse during childhood contributing most strongly to this result. Similarly, women reporting adult rape were almost twice as likely to report symptoms of PTSD as those not reporting it. Resource loss was unexpectedly not among the predictors but a moderation analysis showed that such loss moderated the association between child abuse and current PTSD symptoms, with resource loss increasing the number and severity of PTSD symptoms in women who also reported childhood abuse. The findings highlight the importance of early assessment and intervention in providing mental health care to abused, neglected, and impoverished women to help them prevent and reverse resource loss and revictimization.

There has been a long-standing debate regarding whether or not there is gender symmetry in intimate partner violence (IPV); however, shelter samples have been understudied thus far. This study investigates the prevalence and predictors of IPV perpetration in a sample of 227 women in battered women's shelters. Participants were asked to complete a number of measures assessing demographics, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text rev.; DSM-IV-TR ) diagnoses, traumatic life events, and perpetration and victimization of IPV. Although the vast majority of women in this sample (93%) report perpetrating some form of IPV, few women endorsed violence that was not mutual (5.3%). Furthermore, for every type of IPV assessed, women were victimized significantly more than they perpetrated. Results also indicate that women's perpetration of IPV, and predictors of such perpetration, varied across type, severity, and measurement of violence. However, most IPV outcome variables were predicted by women's experience of victimization. Taken as a whole, these results support the assertion that context matters when examining the relative rates of perpetration as well as its predictors.