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Seedling root traits impact plant establishment under challenging environments. Pearl millet is one of the most heat and drought tolerant cereal crops that provides a vital food source across the sub-Saharan Sahel region. Pearl millet’s early root system features a single fast-growing primary root which we hypothesize is an adaptation to the Sahelian climate. Using crop modelling, we demonstrate that early drought stress is an important constraint in agrosystems in the Sahel where pearl millet was domesticated. Furthermore, we show that increased pearl millet primary root growth is correlated with increased early water stress tolerance in field conditions. Genetics including GWAS and QTL approaches identify genomic regions controlling this key root trait. Combining gene expression data, re-sequencing and re- annotation of one of these genomic regions identified a glutaredoxin-encoding genePgGRXC9as the candidate stress resilience root growth regulator. Functional characterization of its closest Arabidopsis homologAtROXY19revealed a novel role for this glutaredoxin (GRX) gene clade in regulating cell elongation. In summary, our study suggests a conserved function for GRX genes in conferring root cell elongation and enhancing resilience of pearl millet to its Sahelian environment.

Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.) is a potential biodiesel plant that gained much attention in non-oil production countries. We investigated the ability of the species to cope with water deficit occurring in semi-arid zones like Senegal climatic conditions. The layout of the experiment was a randomized complete blocks design with two factors (level and frequency of irrigation) and 6 repetitions. The trial was conducted from December 2012 to June 2013 in CERAAS/ISRA at Thiès, Senegal. Potted Jatropha seedlings were exposed, after three months under similar well-watered conditions, to three water regimes (100%, 50% and 25% of field capacity, respectively C100, C50 and C25) and two frequency of watering once and twice watering a week(F1 and F2, respectively). The different treatments didn’t affect significantly collar diameter and plant height during the time of the experimentation. Nevertheless, the trend line is up for collar diameter and plant height in well-watered plants. For the same frequency of irrigation, biomass accumulated was high in C100. No difference was found between plants biomass in C25-F1 and C25-F2. For physiological parameters, there are no differences between the treatments at the onset of stress. However, after 2 weeks of stress, photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and transpiration were affected permanently in treatments C100-F1, C50-F1 and C25-F1 and their values never reached those of plants of C100-F2, 50-F2 and C25-F2. The opposite was noted for leaf temperature. For the same frequency of irrigation, photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and transpiration were higher in C100 and the opposite occurred for the leaf temperature. These results demonstrate that growth and productivity of Jatropha are significantly affected by water stress conditions. Its need to be watered regularly to maintain physiological functions and biomass production definitely highlights that its growth in semi-arid zones is economically unlikely.

Sorghum is a staple food for many in the Sahel. However, it often faces earlystage water deficit resulting in production decrease. Research is focusing on developing early drought tolerant varieties. This study assessed the effects of early drought stress on 10 elite varieties of West African sorghum collection tested over 2 years (2018-2019) in Bambey (Senegal). Water stress was applied by withholding irrigation 25 days after sowing for one month, followed by optimal irrigation until maturity. Soil moisture and agro-physiomorphological traits were monitored. Results showed highly significant effects of early drought stress on sorghum plants growth. The combined analysis of variance revealed highly significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) between varieties in the different environments for most traits studied. Under water deficit, the genotypic adaptation was linked to the capacity of varieties to increase the dead leaves weight and the roots length density and to reduce photosynthesis rate, stomata conductance, and leaf transpiration. The analysis of spectral indices across water treatments revealed significant variation. However, the differential responses between varieties remained the same. Fadda (V1), Nieleni (V2), Soumba (V8) and 621B (V9) showed promising behavior under drought stress and could be suitable for further use in West Africa.

A method has been developed to measure root intersection density (RID) on a trench-profile in field conditions. Here we describe how 2D spatial distribution mapping of RID can be processed and converted into root length density (RLD) and root distances (ARD) using a new freeware named RACINE2.2. The software also allows a simple modeling of potential root extraction ratio in the soil (PRER). The software contains models calculating RLD, ARD, and PRER from RID for several crops (maize, sorghum, sugarcane, rice, pearl millet, pineapple, eucalyptus). Models may be changed or added into RACINE2.2. RLD, ARD, and PRER are calculated for each spatial unit and can be used to generate 2D maps using RACINE2.2. Data can be exported to a spreadsheet or a surface mapping software for further analysis. It is also possible to import data into RACINE2.2 from a spreadsheet. This application thus makes studies about root-soil interactions, root growth, and root uptake easier. It opens new avenues to characterize root systems to improve root water and nutrient uptake in field conditions.

A method has been developed to measure root intersection density (RID) on a trench-profile in field conditions. Here we describe how 2D spatial distribution mapping of RID can be processed and converted into root length density (RLD) and root distances (ARD) using a new freeware named RACINE2.2. The software also allows a simple modeling of potential root extraction ratio in the soil (PRER). The software contains models calculating RLD, ARD, and PRER from RID for several crops (maize, sorghum, sugarcane, rice, pearl millet, pineapple, eucalyptus). Models may be changed or added into RACINE2.2. RLD, ARD, and PRER are calculated for each spatial unit and can be used to generate 2D maps using RACINE2.2. Data can be exported to a spreadsheet or a surface mapping software for further analysis. It is also possible to import data into RACINE2.2 from a spreadsheet. This application thus makes studies about root-soil interactions, root growth, and root uptake easier. It opens new avenues to characterize root systems to improve root water and nutrient uptake in field conditions.

SUMMARYDrought is a major constraint on plant productivity globally. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) landraces have evolved in drought-prone regions, but the genetics of their adaptation is not yet understood. Loci underlying stay-green post-flowering drought tolerance (Stg), have been identified in a temperate breeding line, but their role in drought adaptation of tropical sorghum is to be elucidated.We phenotyped 590 diverse sorghum accessions from West Africa under field-based managed drought stress, pre-flowering (WS1) and post-flowering (WS2) over several years and conducted genome-wide association studies (GWAS).Broad-sense heritability for grain and biomass yield components was high (33-92%) across environments. There was a significant correlation between stress tolerance index (STI) for grain weight across WS1 and WS2. GWAS revealed that SbZfl1 and SbCN12, orthologs of maize flowering genes, likely underlie flowering time variation under these conditions. GWAS further identified associations (n = 134) for STI and drought effects on yield components, including 16 putative pleiotropic associations. Thirty of the associations colocalized with Stg1–4 loci and had large effects. Seven lead associations, including some within Stg1, overlapped with positive selection outliers.Our findings reveal natural genetic variation for drought tolerance-related traits, and suggest a broad role of Stg loci in drought adaptation of sorghum.

International audience; The interactions between plant roots and the associated microbiota impact soil aggregation, water retention and plant nutrient availability. Thus, selection of plant genotypes that promote microbial species involved in rootadhering soil aggregation and rhizosheath formation could help improve yield sustainably. Here, we tested pearl millet genotypic variation in both root-adhering soil aggregation, microbiological and biochemical characteristic. Methods: A collection of 181 pearl millet inbred lines was phenotyped for their rhizosheath size, and thirteen contrasting genotypes were selected and grown under field conditions, and their root-adhering soil (RAS) was sampled. Microbial biomass, pH, mineral N content and six enzymatic activities involved in main nutrients cycles were analyzed, and metabarcoding of 16S rDNA and ITS were performed for bacterial and fungal diversity. Results: Enzymatic activities (chitinase, acid phosphomonoesterase, FDA-hydrolysis and β-glucosidase) were higher in RAS of larger rhizosheath lines than that of smaller rhizosheath one. Bacterial β-diversity showed a separation of the most contrasting lines in the principal coordinate analysis performed with the Bray-Curtis distance. Some bacteria from the Gaiellaceae and Sphingomonadaceae families and the Bradyrhizobium genus were associated with the large rhizosheath phenotype. Concerning the fungal community, we noticed a negative correlation between the specific richness and the rhizosheath size and Trichoderma genus was positively associated to the rhizosheath size. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that in pearl millet, rhizosheath size is related to soil nutrient dynamics and microbiota diversity. However, it also shows that other factors shape this trait and their relative importance must be determined.

Sorghum is the fifth most important cereal crop world-wide and feeds millions of people in the Sahel. However, it often faces early-stage water deficit due to false onsets of rainy seasons resulting in production decrease. Therefore, developing early drought tolerant material becomes a necessity but requires a good knowledge of adaptation mechanisms, which remains to be elucidated. The present study aimed at assessing the effects of early drought stress on ten elite sorghum varieties tested over two years (2018–2019) at the National Agronomic Research Centre (CNRA) of Bambey (Senegal, West Africa). Two different water regimes (well-watered and drought stress) were applied during the dry season. Water stress was applied by withholding irrigation 25 days after sowing for one month, followed by optimal irrigation until maturity. Soil moisture measurements were performed and allowed to follow the level of stress (down to a fraction of transpirable soil water (FTSW) of 0.30 at the end of stress). An agro-physio-morphological monitoring was carried out during the experiment. Results showed highly significant effects of early drought stress in sorghum plants growth by decreasing leaf appearance, biomass, height but also yield set up. The combined analysis of variance revealed highly significant differences (p ≤ 0.01) between varieties in the different environments for most characters. Under water deficit, the variability was less strong on leaf appearance and plant height at the end of stress. The adaptation responses were related to the capacity of varieties to grow up fast and complete their cycle rather, increase the dead leaves weight, reduce photosynthesis rate, stomatal conductance, leaf transpiration and increase the roots length density. However, varieties V1, V2, V8 and V9 showed promising behavior under stress and could be suitable for further application in West Africa for sorghum breeding and farming.

Local landrace and breeding germplasm is a useful source of genetic diversity for regional and global crop improvement initiatives. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolorL. Moench) in West Africa has diversified across a mosaic of cultures and end-uses, and along steep precipitation and photoperiod gradients. To facilitate germplasm utilization, a West African sorghum association panel (WASAP) of 756 accessions from national breeding programs of Niger, Mali, Senegal, and Togo was assembled and characterized. Genotyping-by-sequencing was used to generate 159,101 high-quality biallelic SNPs, with 43% in intergenic regions and 13% in genic regions. High genetic diversity was observed within the WASAP (π = 0.00045), only slightly less than in a global diversity panel (π = 0.00055). Linkage disequilibrium decayed to background level (r2< 0.1) by ~50 kb in the WASAP. Genome-wide diversity was structured both by botanical type, and by populations within botanical type, with eight ancestral populations identified. Most populations were distributed across multiple countries, suggesting several potential common gene pools across the national programs. Genome-wide association studies of days to flowering and plant height revealed eight and three significant quantitative trait loci (QTL), respectively, with major height QTL at canonical height lociDw3andSbHT7.1. Colocalization of two of eight major flowering time QTL with flowering genes previously described in US germplasm (Ma6andSbCN8) suggests that photoperiodic flowering in WA sorghum is conditioned by both known and novel genes. This genomic resource provides a foundation for genomics-enabled breeding of climate-resilient varieties in West Africa.

Pearl millet, unlike other cereals, is able to withstand dry and hot conditions and plays an important role for food security in arid and semi-arid areas of Africa and India. However, low soil fertility and drought constrain pearl millet yield. One of the main targets to address these constraints through agricultural practices or breeding is root system architecture. In this study, in order to easily phenotype the root system in field conditions, we developed a model to predict root length density (RLD) of pearl millet plants from root intersection densities (RID) counted on a trench profile in field conditions. We identified root orientation as an important parameter to improve the relationship between RID and RLD. Root orientation was notably found to differ between thick roots (more anisotropic with depth) and fine roots (isotropic at all depths). We used our model to study pearl millet root system response to drought and showed that pearl millet reorients its root growth toward deeper soil layers that retain more water in these conditions. Overall, this model opens ways for the characterization of the impact of environmental factors and management practices on pearl millet root system development.

Pearl millet plays a major role in food security in arid and semi-arid areas of Africa and India. However, it lags behind the other cereal crops in terms of genetic improvement. The recent sequencing of its genome opens the way to the use of modern genomic tools for breeding. Our study aimed at identifying genetic components involved in early drought stress tolerance as a first step toward the development of improved pearl millet varieties or hybrids. A panel of 188 inbred lines from West Africa was phenotyped under early drought stress and well-irrigated conditions. We found a strong impact of drought stress on yield components. This impact was variable between inbred lines. We then performed an association analysis with a total of 392,493 SNPs identified using Genotyping-by-Sequencing (GBS). Correcting for genetic relatedness, genome wide association study identified QTLs for biomass production in early drought stress conditions and for stay-green trait. In particular, genes involved in the sirohaem and wax biosynthesis pathways were found to co-locate with association loci. Our results open the way to use genomic selection to breed pearl millet lines with improved yield under drought stress.

Heterotic grouping based on combining ability for traits of interest, in addition to plant performance and genetic relationship among germplasm, would be useful in planning crosses in breeding programmes. This study aimed at determining the combining abilities of selected landraces for morphological and physiological traits under contrasted environments and identifying the suitable heterotic grouping method for superior hybrid production. For this purpose, nineteen accessions representing different origins and population structure among West African Sorghum Accessions Panel (WASAP) and two female lines, were used in « Line x tester » mating design to produce thirtyeight (38) hybrids. Analysis of variance showed significant general combining ability and specific combining ability effects for grain weight, plant height, days to flowering, panicle length and chlorophyll content implying existence of heterotic responses for these traits. Both additive and non-additive gene effects were important in controlling the inheritance of the traits. Parents K31.3, K37 and Ni331 were the best combiners for grain weight, providing the opportunity for breeders to improve grain yield under diverse environments. AVG-1 x K31.3 and AVG-1 x Tg148 were the superior hybrids. Combining ability based heterotic grouping methods classified sorghum accessions into four groups. The heterotic group’s specific and general combining ability (HSGCA) method was the suitable in predicting hybrid superiority. This combining abilities based heterotic grouping study is an additional tool that breeders could use to identify the best parents for superior hybrids development in West Africa. Key Words : Combining ability, heterotic groups, sorghum, West Africa

An essential aspect of studies on fruit growth is the accurate and nondestructive on-field estimation of key variables of interest such as fresh or dry fruit weight. Allometric relationships between a key variable of interest and one or several easy-to-measure variables that are used as predictors are convenient and powerful tools for this goal. However, these relationships could be affected by different factors. Allometric relationships were built to assess fresh and dry fruit weight of 'Kenbt' mango, and the effects of growing conditions on these relationships were investigated. Length (L), orthogonal diameters (D1, D2), fresh and dry weights were recorded on individual fruits sampled at three dates during fruit growth in six orchards, one irrigated orchard on Reunion island and five irrigated and non-irrigated orchards in Senegal. Allometric relationships were estimated between fresh and dry fruit weights and the product LD1D2. The relationship between fresh fruit weight and LD1D2 was linear and unaffected by the growing conditions. The relationship between dry fruit weight and LD1D2 was allometric, i.e. followed a power function. It was then linearized by log-transformation of the two variables. The growing conditions did not affect the slope of this relationship, but affected the y-intercept. The y-intercepts estimated for each orchard were significantly correlated with the fruit dry matter content, which was also affected by the growing conditions. These results are discussed with regard to the significance of the studied relationships, and to the limits of the allometric method to estimate fruit weight. (Resume d'auteur)

Sequências do DNA de uma região em comum de múltiplos indiví­duos de uma população podem revelar polimorfismos que permitem o estudo da evolução do genoma e suas histórias de seleções, migrações e recombinações. Adicionando-se a esses polimorfismos da população informações quanto origem geográfica, viabiliza-se um estudo filogeográfico que permite a elaboração de cenários de evolução após a domesticação; bem como quais eventos (mutações ou recombinações) mais influenciaram a diversidade genética (DG) desta população, para aquela região do DNA em estudo. Por outro lado, a associação desses polimorfismos das sequências com as caracterí­sticas de interesse estabelece um estudo de associação. Neste contexto, este trabalho visou mostrar a aplicação do polimorfismo de sequências de DNA em um estudo de filogeografia e de associação. Para ambos os estudos foram utilizados dezenove segmentos de seis genes candidatos (Sh2, Bt2, Sssl, Ael, Wx e 02) em uma coleção de sorgo (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench), composta por 210 acessos. Os genes Sh2, Bt2, Sssl, Ael e Wx estão envolvidos na sí­ntese do amido e o gene 02 na sí­ntese de proteí­nas de reserva. A DG foi menor nos genes Sh2, Bt2 e Sssl; e maior para Ael, Wx e 02. Os testes estatí­sticos revelaram um elevado número de associações falso-positivas em função da estruturação da coleção, porém foram mantidas várias associações corroboradas pela co-localização com QTLs de sorgo e de milho.

The root length density (RLD) distri- bution in the soil is a key factor for water and nutrient uptake but its direct assessment is not easy. A field method is presented here to assess RLD of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) from the root intersection density (RID) and taking root orientations into account. The method was developed with four varieties cropped in 2006 in Bambey (Senegal) on a sandy soil, and validated on the basis of independent data obtained on two other varieties cropped in 2008 in Thies in Senegal on a sandy loam soil. Sets of 1 × 10 -3 m 3 cubic undisturbed soil samples were collected at different positions and at three different dates for the four varieties during the first experiment. RIDs of thick and fine roots were assessed on the sides of the soil cubes and RLDs were measured in the volumes. Fine roots appeared to be isotropic when thick roots were horizontal near the surface and gradually became vertical in deeper horizons. RLD was tenfold lower for thick roots than for fine ones. This led to the development of a model to determine RLD from RID. The relationship for all roots was modeled as RLD = RID × CO, where the root orientation coefficient (CO) is equal to 1.97, indicating that the global root distribution is almost isotropic (CO = 2 for isotropic conditions). The model was validated on the basis of inde- pendent data from the second experiment. This model enables RLD mapping and description of RLD variability on sorghum from RID observa- tions on trench profiles (with 10 × 10 cm or 5 × 5 cm surface area used for RID measurement).

To ensure food security in Africa and Asia, developing sorghum varieties with grain quality that matches consumer demand is a major breeding objective that requires a better understanding of the genetic control of grain quality traits. The objective of this targeted association study was to assess whether the polymorphism detected in six genes involved in synthesis pathways of starch (Sh2, Bt2, SssI, Ae1, and Wx) or grain storage proteins (O2) could explain the phenotypic variability of six grain quality traits [amylose content (AM), protein content (PR), lipid content (LI), hardness (HD), endosperm texture (ET), peak gelatinization temperature (PGT)], two yield component traits [thousand grain weight (TGW) and number of grains per panicle (NBG)], and yield itself (YLD). We used a core collection of 195 accessions which had been previously phenotyped and for which polymorphic sites had been identified in sequenced segments of the six genes. The associations between gene polymorphism and phenotypic traits were analyzed with Tassel. The percentages of admixture of each accession, estimated using 60 RFLP probes, were used as cofactors in the analyses, decreasing the proportion of false-positive tests (70%) due to population structure. The significant associations observed matched generally well the role of the enzymes encoded by the genes known to determine starch amount or type. Sh2, Bt2, Ae1, and Wx were associated with TGW. SssI and Ae1 were associated with PGT, a trait influenced by amylopectin amount. Sh2 was associated with AM while Wx was not, possibly because of the absence of waxy accessions in our collection. O2 and Wx were associated with HD and ET. No association was found between O2 and PR. These results were consistent with QTL or association data in sorghum and in orthologous zones of maize. This study represents the first targeted association mapping study for grain quality in sorghum and paves the way for marker-aided selection.

Objective : To obtain high yields under more and more irregular agro-climatic conditions, varieties with high resistance to drought in different stages of their cycles are necessary. The objectives of this study are to obtain tolerant cowpea varieties by using parents with different mechanisms of tolerance and to understand mechanisms of tolerance to drought in cowpea. Methodology and Results : Eight varieties were estimated for their response to different hydric conditions.. The transpiration of well watered plant under different VPD (vapor pressure deficit) was estimated in a pot. In the field, plants were subjected to two water conditions, intermittent and terminal stress. The transpiration at 3 pm (the highest VPD) was low in the tolerant genotypes compared with the sensitive genotypes. The leaf area index decreases while the leaf temperature increased significantly under water deficit. Mouride and IT93K-503-1 had the highest grain and fodder yield of ten plants. The terminal stress proved more severe than the intermittent stress. IT93K-503-1 had the greatest specific leaf area, a transpiration curve accorded to the VPD different from those of the other varieties, a high leaf temperature and a long life cycle. Mouride had important leaf area and pod harvest index. Mouride is more adapted to the terminal stress and has a good tolerance in the intermittent stress. IT93K-503-1 is more adapted to the intermittent stress than Mouride but had a low yield in seeds during the terminal stress. Mouride and IT93K- 503-1 had different physiological responses. Leaf area index and leaf temperature are correlated to the variables of yield. Conclusion and application of results : This work permitted to highlight the importance of some physiological and agronomic parameters in the breeding for drought tolerance in cowpea. Mouride and IT93K-503-1 are adapted genotypes to water stress with different mechanisms. These results can let us understanding more the mechanism of drought tolerance in cowpea and these two genotypes can be used in a program of breeding for varieties adapted to the terminal and intermittent drought. Keywords : Cowpea; drought resistance; transpiration; VPD; leaf temperature; yield.