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It is often assumed that genotoxic substances will be detected more easily by using in vitro rather than in vivo genotoxicity tests since higher concentrations, more cytotoxicity and static exposures can be achieved. However, there is a paucity of data demonstrating whether genotoxic substances are detected at lower concentrations in cell culture in vitro than can be reached in the blood of animals treated in vivo. To investigate this issue, we compared the lowest concentration required for induction of chromosomal damage in vitro (lowest observed effective concentration, or LOEC) with the concentration of the test substance in blood at the lowest dose required for biologically relevant induction of micronuclei in vivo (lowest observed effective dose, or LOED). In total, 83 substances were found for which the LOED could be identified or estimated, where concentrations in blood and micronucleus data were available via the same route of administration in the same species, and in vitro chromosomal damage data were available. 39.8 % of substances were positive in vivo at blood concentrations that were lower than the LOEC in vitro, 22.9 % were positive at similar concentrations, and 37.3 % of substances were positive in vivo at higher concentrations. Distribution analysis showed a very wide scatter of > 6 orders of magnitude across these 3 categories. When mode of action was evaluated, the distribution of clastogens and aneugens across the 3 categories was very similar. Thus, the ability to detect induction of micronuclei in bone marrow in vivo regardless of the mechanism for micronucleus induction, is clearly not solely determined by the concentration of test substance which induced chromosomal damage in vitro.

The International Workshop on Genotoxicity Testing (IWGT) meets every four years to obtain consensus on unresolved issues associated with genotoxicity testing. At the 2017 IWGT meeting in Tokyo, four sub-groups addressed issues associated with the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Test Guideline TG471, which describes the use of bacterial reverse-mutation tests. The strains sub-group analyzed test data from >10,000 chemicals, tested additional chemicals, and concluded that some strains listed in TG471 are unnecessary because they detected fewer mutagens than other strains that the guideline describes as equivalent. Thus, they concluded that a smaller panel of strains would suffice to detect most mutagens. The laboratory proficiency sub-group recommended (a) establishing strain cell banks, (b) developing bacterial growth protocols that optimize assay sensitivity, and (c) testing "proficiency compounds" to gain assay experience and establish historical positive and control databases. The sub-group on criteria for assay evaluation recommended that laboratories (a) track positive and negative control data; (b) develop acceptability criteria for positive and negative controls; (c) optimize dose-spacing and the number of analyzable doses when there is evidence of toxicity; (d) use a combination of three criteria to evaluate results: a dose-related increase in revertants, a clear increase in revertants in at least one dose relative to the concurrent negative control, and at least one dose that produced an increase in revertants above control limits established by the laboratory from historical negative controls; and (e) establish experimental designs to resolve unclear results. The in silico sub-group summarized in silico utility as a tool in genotoxicity assessment but made no specific recommendations for TG471. Thus, the workgroup identified issues that could be addressed if TG471 is revised. The companion papers (a) provide evidence-based approaches, (b) recommend priorities, and (c) give examples of clearly defined terms to support revision of TG471.

Acetaminophen, a nonmutagenic compound as previously concluded from bacteria, in vitro mammalian cell, and in vivo transgenic rat assays, presented a good profile as a nonmutagenic reference compound for use in the international multilaboratory Pig‐a assay validation. Acetaminophen was administered at 250, 500, 1,000, and 2,000 mg·kg−1·day−1 to male Sprague Dawley rats once daily in 3 studies (3 days, 2 weeks, and 1 month with a 1‐month recovery group). The 3‐Day and 1‐Month Studies included assessments of the micronucleus endpoint in peripheral blood erythrocytes and the comet endpoint in liver cells and peripheral blood cells in addition to the Pig‐a assay; appropriate positive controls were included for each assay. Within these studies, potential toxicity of acetaminophen was evaluated and confirmed by inclusion of liver damage biomarkers and histopathology. Blood was sampled pre‐treatment and at multiple time points up to Day 57. Pig‐a mutant frequencies were determined in total red blood cells (RBCs) and reticulocytes (RETs) as CD59‐negative RBC and CD59‐negative RET frequencies, respectively. No increases in DNA damage as indicated through Pig‐a, micronucleus, or comet endpoints were seen in treated rats. All positive controls responded as appropriate. Data from this series of studies demonstrate that acetaminophen is not mutagenic in the rat Pig‐a model. These data are consistent with multiple studies in other nonclinical models, which have shown that acetaminophen is not mutagenic. At 1,000 mg·kg−1·day−1, Cmax values of acetaminophen on Day 28 were 153,600 ng/ml and 131,500 ng/ml after single and repeat dosing, respectively, which were multiples over that of clinical therapeutic exposures (2.6–6.1 fold for single doses of 4,000 mg and 1,000 mg, respectively, and 11.5 fold for multiple dose of 4,000 mg) (FDA 2002). Data generated were of high quality and valid for contribution to the international multilaboratory validation of the in vivo Rat Pig‐a Mutation Assay.

Introduction: Constitutive activation of the classical nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF κB) pathway is a clear driver of B-cell lymphomas, especially the aggressive activated B-cell (ABC) subtype of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma translocation protein 1 (MALT1) is a key mediator of the classical NF-κB signaling pathway downstream of B-cell receptor and T-cell receptor. MALT1 possesses two functions: a scaffolding function to recruit NF-κB signaling proteins and a protease function to cleave and inactivate inhibitors of the NF-κB signaling pathway. Methods: Using a high-throughput screen followed by iterative structure-activity relationship (SAR) analyses, the MALT1 inhibitor JNJ-67856633 was identified. JNJ-67856633 was evaluated using biochemical, cellular in vitro, in vivo tumor efficacy and safety models. Results: JNJ-67856633 is a potent, selective, allosteric inhibitor of MALT1 protease activity as measured by biochemical assays or downstream cellular cytokine readouts (IL6/10) or direct MALT1 substrate cleavage (RelB, BCL10). The compound inhibits proliferation of activated B-cell diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (ABC-DLBCL) cell lines bearing CD79b or CARD11 mutations as well as models mimicking resistance to covalent Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitors. Furthermore, combination effects were observed in CD79b cellular ABC-DLBCL models when JNJ-67856633 was combined with a BTK inhibitor. JNJ-67856633 showed activity in organoid cultures derived from ABC-DLBCL patients. JNJ-67856633 leads to potent in vivo pharmacodynamic shutdown in CD79b- as well as CARD11-mutant ABC-DLBCL models as measured by serum IL10 or uncleaved BCL10 levels in tumors. JNJ-67856633 exhibits potent tumor growth inhibition in two human DLBCL xenograft models, OCI Ly3 and OCI Ly10. In addition, >5 patient-derived DLBCL xenografts were evaluated and activity in mutation selected models was observed. To address the role of MALT1 inhibition in T cells, primary human T cells derived from normal healthy volunteers were treated with JNJ-67856633 in vitro. Dose-dependent inhibition of the generation of Tregs (CD4+CD25+FoxP3+) following CD3/28 stimulation was observed upon treatment with JNJ-67856633, suggesting a potential immune-modulatory role of MALT1 inhibition. Conclusions: Phase 1 clinical trials assessing the safety and efficacy of JNJ-67856633 initiated in 2019. JNJ-67856633 is a combination partner for BTK inhibitors and a promising treatment option for BTKi-resistant tumors, with demonstrated preclinical activity in CARD11 mutant tumors. In addition to ABC-DLBCL, a MALT1 inhibitor is a promising treatment option for patients with CLL, MCL, WM, and FL whose tumors have been shown to be sensitive to inhibition of BTK. MALT lymphomas, characterized by MALT1 and BCL10 translocation, represent another attractive target for MALT1 inhibition. Citation Format: Ulrike Philippar, Tianbao Lu, Lorena Fontan, Nele Vloemans, Mariette Bekkers, Luc van Nuffel, Marcello Gaudiano, Katarzyna Wnuk-Lipinska, Bas-Jan Van Der Leede, Katie Amssoms, Kristof Kimpe, Bart Medaer, Tony Greway, Yann Abraham, Max Cummings, Emanuele Trella, Greet Vanhoof, Weimei Sun, Jan Willem Thuring, Peter Connolly, Haopeng Rui, Sriram Balasubramanian, John Gerecitano, Ari Melnick, Ricardo Attar. Discovery of JNJ-67856633: A novel, first-in-class MALT1 protease inhibitor for the treatment of B-cell lymphomas [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the AACR Virtual Meeting: Advances in Malignant Lymphoma; 2020 Aug 17-19. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Blood Cancer Discov 2020;1(3_Suppl):Abstract nr PO-49.

Introduction: Constitutive activation of the classical nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B-cells (NF-κB) pathway is a clear driver of B-cell lymphomas, especially the aggressive activated B-cell (ABC) subtype of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma translocation protein 1 (MALT1) is a key mediator of the classical NF-κB signaling pathway downstream of B-cell receptor and T-cell receptor. MALT1 possesses 2 functions: a scaffolding function to recruit NF-κB signaling proteins and a protease function to cleave and inactivate inhibitors of the NF-κB signaling pathway. Methods: Using a high-throughput screen followed by iterative structure-activity relationship (SAR) analyses, the MALT1 inhibitor JNJ-67856633 was identified. The lead compound was evaluated using biochemical, in vitro cellular and in vivo tumor efficacy and safety models. Results: JNJ-67856633 is a potent, selective, allosteric inhibitor of MALT1 protease activity as measured by biochemical assays or downstream cellular cytokine readouts (IL 6/10) or direct MALT1 substrate cleavage (RelB, BCL10). The compound inhibits proliferation of activated B-cell diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (ABC-DLBCL) cell lines bearing CD79b or CARD11 mutations as well as models mimicking resistance to covalent Bruton's Tyrosine Kinase (BTK) inhibitors. Furthermore, combination effects were observed in CD79b cellular ABC-DLBCL models when JNJ-67856633 was combined with a BTK inhibitor. JNJ-67856633 leads to potent in vivo pharmacodynamic shutdown in CD79b- as well as CARD11-mutant ABC-DLBCL models as measured by serum IL10 or uncleaved BCL10 levels in tumors. JNJ-67856633 exhibits potent tumor growth inhibition in two human DLBCL xenograft models, OCI Ly3 and OCI Ly10, and mutation selection patient derived DLBCL xenografts. To address the role of MALT1 inhibition in T cells, primary human T cells derived from normal healthy volunteers were treated with JNJ-67856633 in vitro. Dose dependent inhibition of the generation of Tregs (CD4+CD25+FoxP3+) following CD3/28 stimulation was observed upon treatment with JNJ-67856633 suggesting a potential immune modulatory role of MALT1 inhibition. Conclusions: Phase 1 clinical trials assessing the safety and efficacy of JNJ-67856633 initiated in 2019. JNJ-67856633 is a combination partner for BTK inhibitors and a promising treatment option for BTKi-resistant tumors, with demonstrated preclinical activity in CARD11 mutant tumors. In addition to ABC-DLBCL, a MALT1 inhibitor is a promising treatment option for patients with CLL, MCL, WM, and FL whose tumors have been shown to be sensitive to inhibition of BTK. MALT lymphomas, characterized by MALT1 and BCL10 translocation, represent another attractive target for MALT1 inhibition. Citation Format: Ulrike Philippar, Tianbao Lu, Nele Vloemans, Mariette Bekkers, Luc Van Nuffel, Marcello Gaudiano, Katarzyna Wnuk-Lipinska, Bas-jan Van Der Leede, Katie Amssoms, Kristof Kimpe, Bart Medaer, Tony Greway, Yann Abraham, Max Cummings, Emanuele Trella, Greet Vanhoof, Weimei Sun, Jan Willem Thuring, Peter Connolly, Jan Linders, Haopeng Rui, Sriram Balasubramanian, Amy Johnson, John Gerecitano, Jenna Goldberg, James P. Edwards, Yusri Elsayed, Jennifer Smit, Jaqueline Bussolari, Jaqueline Bussolari, Ricardo Attar. Discovery of JNJ-67856633: A novel, first-in-class MALT1 protease inhibitor for the treatment of B cell lymphomas [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research 2020; 2020 Apr 27-28 and Jun 22-24. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2020;80(16 Suppl):Abstract nr 5690.

A committee was constituted within the International Workshop on Genetic Toxicology Testing (IWGT) to evaluate the current criteria for a valid Ames test and to provide recommendations for interpretation of test results. Currently, determination of a positive vs. a negative result is made by applying various data evaluation procedures for comparing dosed plates with the concurrent solvent control plates. These evaluation procedures include a requirement for a specific fold increase (2- or 3-fold, specific to the bacterial strain), formal statistical procedures, or subjective (expert judgment) evaluation. After extensive discussion, the workgroup was not able to reach consensus recommendations in favor of any of these procedures. There was a consensus that combining additional evaluation criteria to the comparison between dosed plates and the concurrent solvent control plates improves test interpretation. The workgroup recommended using these additional criteria because the induction of mutations is a continuum of responses and there is no biological relevance to a strict dividing line between a positive (mutagenic) and not-positive (nonmutagenic) response. The most useful additional criteria identified were a concentration-response relationship and consideration of a possible increase above the concurrent control in the context of the laboratory’s historical solvent control values for the particular tester strain. The workgroup also emphasized the need for additional testing to resolve weak or inconclusive responses, usually with altered experimental conditions chosen based on the initial results. Use of these multiple criteria allowed the workgroup to reach consensus on definitions of “clear positive” and “clear negative” responses which would not require a repeat test for clarification. The workgroup also reached consensus on recommendations to compare the responses of concurrent positive and negative controls to historical control distributions for assay acceptability, and the use of control charts to determine the validity of the individual test.

In genotoxicity testing of pharmaceuticals the rodent alkaline comet assay is being increasingly used as a second in vivo assay in addition to the in vivo micronucleus assay to mitigate in vitro positive results as recommended by the ICH S2(R1) guideline. This paper summarizes a survey suggested by the Safety Working Party of European Medicines Agency (EMA), and conducted by the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations (EFPIA) to investigate the experience among European pharmaceutical companies by conducting the in vivo comet assay for regulatory purpose. A special focus was given on the typology of the obtained results and to identify potential difficulties encountered with the interpretation of study data. The participating companies reported a total of 147 studies (conducted in-house or outsourced) and shared the conclusion on the comet assay response for 136 studies. Most of the studies were negative (118/136). Only about 10% (14/136 studies) of the comet assays showed a positive response. None of the positive comet assay results were clearly associated with organ toxicity indicating that the positive responses are not due to cytotoxic effects of the compound in the tissue examined. The number of comet assays with an equivocal or inconclusive response was rare, respectively

A collaborative trial was conducted to evaluate the possibility of integrating the rat-liver Comet assay into repeat-dose toxicity studies. Fourteen laboratories from Europe, Japan and the USA tested fifteen chemicals. Two chemicals had been previously shown to induce micronuclei in an acute protocol, but were found negative in a 4-week Micronucleus (MN) Assay (benzo[a]pyrene and 1,2-dimethylhydrazine; Hamada et al., 2001); four genotoxic rat-liver carcinogens that were negative in the MN assay in bone marrow or blood (2,6-dinitrotoluene, dimethylnitrosamine, 1,2-dibromomethane, and 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline); three compounds used in the ongoing JaCVAM (Japanese Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods) validation study of the acute liver Comet assay (2,4-diaminotoluene, 2,6-diaminotoluene and acrylamide); three pharmaceutical-like compounds (chlordiazepoxide, pyrimethamine and gemifloxacin), and three non-genotoxic rodent liver carcinogens (methapyrilene, clofibrate and phenobarbital). Male rats received oral administrations of the test compounds, daily for two or four weeks. The top dose was meant to be the highest dose producing clinical signs or histopathological effects without causing mortality, i.e. the 28-day maximum tolerated dose. The liver Comet assay was performed according to published recommendations and following the protocol for the ongoing JaCVAM validation trial. Laboratories provided liver Comet assay data obtained at the end of the long-term (2- or 4-week) studies together with an evaluation of liver histology. Most of the test compounds were also investigated in the liver Comet assay after short-term (1-3 daily) administration to compare the sensitivity of the two study designs. MN analyses were conducted in bone marrow or peripheral blood for most of the compounds to determine whether the liver Comet assay could complement the MN assay for the detection of genotoxins after long-term treatment. Most of the liver genotoxins were positive and the three non-genotoxic carcinogens gave negative result in the liver Comet assay after long-term administration. There was a high concordance between short- and long-term Comet assay results. Most compounds when tested up to the maximum tolerated dose were correctly detected in both short- and long-term studies. Discrepant results were obtained with 2,6 diaminotoluene (negative in the short-term, but positive in the long-term study), phenobarbital (positive in the short-term, but negative in the long-term study) and gemifloxacin (positive in the short-term, but negative in the long-term study). The overall results indicate that the liver Comet assay can be integrated within repeat-dose toxicity studies and efficiently complements the MN assay in detecting genotoxins. Practical aspects of integrating genotoxicity endpoints into repeat-dose studies were evaluated, e.g. by investigating the effect of blood sampling, as typically performed during toxicity studies, on the Comet and MN assays. The bleeding protocols used here did not affect the conclusions of the Comet assay or of the MN assays in blood and bone marrow. Although bleeding generally increased reticulocyte frequencies, the sensitivity of the response in the MN assay was not altered. These findings indicate that all animals in a toxicity study (main-study animals as well as toxicokinetic (TK) satellite animals) could be used for evaluating genotoxicity. However, possible logistical issues with scheduling of the necropsies and the need to conduct electrophoresis promptly after tissue sampling suggest that the use of TK animals could be simpler. The data so far do not indicate that liver proliferation or toxicity confound the results of the liver Comet assay. As was also true for other genotoxicity assays, criteria for evaluation of Comet assay results and statistical analyses differed among laboratories. Whereas comprehensive advice on statistical analysis is available in the literature, agreement is needed on applying consistent criteria.

As part of the Japanese Center for the Validation of Alternative Methods (JaCVAM)-initiated international validation study of in vivo rat alkaline comet assay (comet assay), p-phenylenediamine dihydrochloride (PPD), o-phenylphenol sodium salt (OPP), and 2,4-diaminotoluene (2,4-DAT), were analyzed in this laboratory as coded test chemicals. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (7-9 weeks of age) were given three oral doses of the test compounds, 24 and 21 h apart and liver and stomach were sampled 3h after the final dose administration. Under the conditions of the test, no increases in DNA damage were observed in liver and stomach with PPD and OPP up to 100 and 1000 mg/kg/day, respectively. 2,4-DAT, a known genotoxic carcinogen, induced a weak but reproducible, dose-related and statistically significant increase in DNA damage in liver cells while no increases were observed in stomach cells.

An interlaboratory study was performed to validate an anti-CD71/flow cytometry-based technique for enumerating micronucleated reticulocytes (MN-RETs) in mouse peripheral blood. These experiments were designed to address International Workshop on Genotoxicity Test Procedures validation criteria by evaluating the degree of correspondence between MN-RET measurements generated by flow cytometry (FCM) with those obtained using traditional microscopy-based methods. In addition to these cross-methods data, flow cytometric MN-RET measurements for each blood sample were performed at two separate sites in order to evaluate the reproducibility of data between laboratories. In these studies, groups of male CD-1 mice were treated with vehicle (saline or vegetable oil), a negative control (saline or vegetable oil), or four dose levels of five known genotoxicants (clastogens: cyclophosphamide, benzo[a]pyrene, 5-fluorouracil, methotrexate; aneugen: vincristine sulfate). Exposure occurred on 3 consecutive days via intraperitoneal injection, and blood samples were obtained approximately 24 hr after the final treatment. MN-RET frequencies were determined for each sample based on the analysis of 2,000 (microscopy) and 20,000 (FCM) reticulocytes. Regardless of the method utilized, each genotoxic agent was observed to cause statistically significant increases in the frequency of MN-RETs, and each response occurred in a dose-dependent manner. Spearman's correlation coefficient (rs) for FCM versus microscopy-based MN-RET measurements (nine experiments, 252 paired measurements) was 0.740, indicating a high degree of correspondence between methods. The rs value for all flow cytometric MN-RET measurements performed at the two independent sites was 0.857 (n = 248), suggesting that the automated method is highly transferable between laboratories. Additionally, the flow cytometric system offered advantages relative to microscopy-based scoring, including a greater number of cells analyzed, much faster analysis times, and a greater degree of objectivity. Collectively, data presented in this report suggest that the overall performance of mouse peripheral blood micronucleus tests is enhanced by the use of the flow cytometric scoring procedure.

Multivariate longitudinal or clustered data are commonly encountered in clinical trials and toxicological studies. Typically, there is no single standard endpoint to assess the toxicity or efficacy of the compound of interest, but co-primary endpoints are available to assess the toxic effects or the working of the compound. Modeling the responses jointly is thus appealing to draw overall inferences using all responses and to capture the association among the responses. Non-Gaussian outcomes are often modeled univariately using exponential family models. To accommodate both the overdispersion and hierarchical structure in the data, Molenberghs et al. A family of generalized linear models for repeated measures with normal and conjugate random effects. Statistical Science 2010; 25:325347 proposed using two separate sets of random effects. This papers considers a model for multivariate data with hierarchically clustered and overdispersed non-Gaussian data. Gamma random effect for the over-dispersion and normal random effects for the clustering in the data are being used. The two outcomes are jointly analyzed by assuming that the normal random effects for both endpoints are correlated. The association structure between the response is analytically derived. The fit of the joint model to data from a so-called comet assay are compared with the univariate analysis of the two outcomes. Financial support from the IAP research network #P6/03 of the Belgian Government (Belgian Science Policy) and the Research Foundation Flanders is gratefully acknowledged.

In order to support drug research in the selection process for non-embryotoxic pharmaceutical compounds, a screening method for embryotoxicity is needed. The murine embryonic stem cell test (EST) is a validated in vitro test based on two permanent mouse cell lines and delivering results in 10-days. Implementation of this test within our laboratory, revealed variability in the differentiation potential of the embryonic stem cells and, as a consequence, a lot of assays needed to be rejected due the fact the acceptance criteria were not reached. In order to gain a better yield of contracting myocardial cells, we used (1) a stringent control of the cell growth during subcultivation and a standardised hanging drop culture method and (2) a non-enzymatic cell harvest instead of a trypsin/EDTA cell harvest. Implementing of these cell culture modifications resulted in a decreased variability in the size of embryonic bodies, an increase of the number of acceptable tests and a significant increase of the differentiation potential of embryonic cells into strong beating myocardium, which made scoring less time consuming. Testing of 6 reference compounds in the optimized EST showed that the cell culture modifications did not changed the in vitro classification.