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Funding Information: This work was supported by EIT-CLIMATE-KIC [grant number TC_2.1.5_190294_P018-1A, 2019]. The sponsor was not involved in the preparation of the article. Publisher Copyright: © 2022 The Authors The development of legitimate, operative, and feasible landscape adaptation planning for climate change is dependent on the specific characteristics of the landscape and its inhabitants. Spatial patterns, culture, governance systems, socio-economic structures, planning methods, history, and collectively envisioned futures need to be accommodated. The literature suggests that landscape is a complex and dynamic socio-ecological system, the management and adaptation of which requires systemic and integrative approaches to respond to a wide variety of drivers of change, challenges, and interests. Based on activities developed in 15 European pilot landscapes, we identify some of the key factors and conditions affecting the generation of representative local networks for landscape adaptation to climate change. We illustrate how social learning and co-creation processes can be implemented in them and how their co-produced outcomes can help local communities overcome barriers and address critical issues in adaptive planning. Our results provide a framework for the creation of similar networks in other landscapes, exploring at the same time the interactions between the composition of networks, social learning, and the quality of the co-produced outputs as a fundamental step for the development of Landscape Adaptation Plans to Climate Change.

In a context of a rapidly changing livability of towns and countryside, climate change and biodiversity decrease, this paper introduces a landscape-based planning approach to regional spatial policy challenges allowing a regime shift towards a future land system resilient to external pressures. The concept of nature-based solutions and transition theory are combined in this approach, in which co-created normative future visions serve as boundary concepts. Rather than as an object in itself, the landscape is considered as a comprehensive principle, to which all spatial processes are inherently related. We illustrate this approach with three projects in the Netherlands in which landscape-based visions were used to guide the land transition, going beyond the traditional nature-based solutions. The projects studied show that a shared long-term future landscape vision is a powerful boundary concept and a crucial source of inspiration for a coherent design approach to solve today&rsquo, s spatial planning problems. Further, they show that cherishing abiotic differences in the landscape enhances sustainable and resilient landscapes, that co-creation in the social network is a prerequisite for shared solutions, and that a landscape-based approach enhances future-proof land-use transitions to adaptive, circular, and biodiverse landscapes.

[EN] This article provides a perspective on nature-based solutions. First, the argument is developed that nature-based solutions integrate social and ecological systems. Then, theoretical considerations relating to relational values, multifunctionality, transdisciplinarity, and polycentric governance are briefly outlined. Finally, a conceptual model of the social¿ecological system of nature-based solutions is synthesised and presented. This conceptual model comprehensively defines the social and ecological external and internal systems that make up nature-based solutions, and identifies theoretical considerations that need to be addressed at different stages of their planning and implementation The model bridges the normative gaps of existing nature-based solution frameworks and could be used for consistent, comprehensive, and transferable comparisons internationally. The theoretical considerations addressed in this article inform practitioners, policymakers, and researchers about the essential components of nature-based solutions. The conceptual model can facilitate the identification of social and ecological interconnections within nature-based solutions and the range of stakeholders and disciplines involved., The authors would like to thank the Aalto Seed Funding, Aalto University, for the financial support in organising a co-authors workshop for the development of this perspective paper.

Heritage values represent a common good, contributing to societal identity. Landscape is a topical issue because it represents character and identity in both a spatial and a temporal dimension, uniting natural and cultural aspects of heritage at the same time. Especially in Europe, practically all natural heritage can be considered cultural heritage as well, since it is through human action that Europe’s biodiversity has evolved. Heritage perspectives on landscape and nature underline time depth, human agency and social value within landscape. Its cultural starting point does not marginalise nature, but places nature within cultural filters, thus highlighting the reciprocity of nature and culture in the creation of sustainable places. Today’s changing society is transitioning towards new forms of governance dominated by collaboration and continuously shifting networks or actors. Reported examples of cultural landscapes explore heritage management approaches that benefit from combining natural and cultural heritage perceptions. In this context, commonly accessible heritage can bring people together in joint efforts to use the inherited landscape as a shared and cherished resource rather than a conserved and regulated landscape.

Context. The reasons for recent landscape change in the European countryside are complex and poorly substantiated. Identification of drivers of landscape transition and assessment of the effects on the provision of landscape services are subject of recent debate.Objectives. Aims of the paper are to explore what implications rural landscape transitions (as identified by land use and land cover changes) have for the provision of landscape services, and whether these changes can be related to specific drivers of change.Methods. The paper records gross landscape change on the basis of land use and land cover changes in six case study areas in five countries, and assesses the impacts on the provision of landscape services in the past 25 years.Results. In the past decades the observed land use and land cover changes in the case studies are relatively small, with a dominance of urbanisation and afforestation processes. However, the impacts of these changes are clearly reflected in a change in landscape services.Conclusions. Although the landscape transitions do affect the services, spatial data alone is insufficient to assess cause-effect relationships of landscape transitions,landscape structure and pattern. Circumstantial evidence points to substantial effects of EU and national policies on landscape services through landscape transition. These—often unintentional—effects can substantially affect biodiversity, cultural identity and landscape character. More research is needed onthe exact cause-effect relationships between policies and landscape service provision.

Many river rehabilitation projects have been implemented in the past 30 years, strengthening the natural dynamics and ecology of river systems, while reconciling the functions of flood protection, navigation, sediment extraction, and cultural identity. Still, the planning and design of floodplain projects is subject to debate on how to best follow the “natural” characteristics of specific river stretches, the “DNA of the river.” Unlike many other approaches of integrated river management, this approach entails a design strategy for spatial quality in river floodplain development projects at local and regional level, where the current discharge characteristics of the upstream river basin are taken as given. Starting point is the landscape ecological basis of the river, defining the characteristic (hydro-morphological) processes and geomorphological/geological structures in each stretch of the river and floodplain area. An in-depth characterization of these structures and processes helps design floodplains that can accommodate the various river management and development objectives. Often economically strong functions, like flood protection, can be partnered with weaker ones, such as ecosystem restoration. To safeguard spatial quality and sustainability in these integrated projects, the governance aspect is essential. Therefore the Smart Rivers approach addresses both substantial aspects (the “DNA of the River”) as well as procedural and governance elements (called the “Quality Relay”). The principles of the approach are applicable to project design along regulated rivers in densely populated areas all over the world. This article is categorized under: Water and Life > Conservation, Management, and Awareness.

The Dutch government wants to make additional investments to improve the ecological water quality of the rivers, lakes ans estuaries. This is arranged in a programmatic investment approach, entitled PAGW. In addition a strategy is in preparation to ensure a better coordination with area-specific frameworks of Natura 2000. This research is part of this and aimed to provide a prognosis for 2050 about both the ecological potential and the remaining Natura 2000 objectives to be achieved. This is an interim report that focuses on the remaining Natura 2000 objectives. Het Rijk wil een extra impuls geven aan het verbeteren van de ecologische waterkwaliteit in de grote wateren met de Programmatische Aanpak Grote Wateren (PAGW). Het Natuurwinstplan Grote Wateren is een nieuw initiatief, waarmee LIFE IP Deltanatuur en PAGW willen zorgen voor een betere afstemming tussen maatregelen voor ontwikkeling van robuuste natuur en de gebiedspecifieke kaders van Natura 2000. Dit onderzoek is hier een onderdeel van en had als doel een prognose te geven over de potenties (natuurwinst) en de resterende VHR-opgaven voor de grote wateren in 2050. Dit rapport is een tussenrapportage en richt zich op de resterende opgaven.

This paper investigates the transposition and implementation of the Habitats Directive in four European member states, namely Denmark, the Netherlands, Greece, and Romania, and the role that institutional misfits have played in more or less successful implementation processes. Departing in the ‘Worlds of Compliance’ literature, it also explores if this typology can be useful for understanding the ways member states address institutional adaptation pressures in the implementation steps following the transposition phase. The requirements in the Habitats Directive expanded most member states’ nature conservation frameworks, especially in the obligation to introduce pro-active conservation, and it also laid down a number of steps to be taken for creating the European Natura 2000 network. It was found that the transposition did mostly follow general compliance types, but that these types also helped understand the extent and adequacy of adaptations and changes to the institutional framework in the implementation processes following the directive’s adoption. Implementation challenges were different for different countries. They showed a need to align institutional frameworks for a) Natura 2000 in areas with several existing types of landscape protections and ensuing spatial and institutional overlaps; b) clarifying the roles and responsibilities of various authorities involved in implementation; c) ensuring coordination with the other sectorial policy areas that interact with the Habitats Directive (such as the Nitrate Directive and the Water Framework Directive). It turned out that there could be a need for more flexible and less-top-down European legislation, providing a larger room-for-manoeuvre for integration with domestic approaches.

European rural landscapes are in transition due to macro changes in climate, agriculture and public policy, combined with various forms of urbanisation. These changes are affecting the resource basis of agriculture, the socio-cultural identity of rural communities, and are challenging the policy regimes affecting European landscapes. Therefore, they demand new forms of landscape governance if the diversity and quality of the landscapes are to be protected and further developed in the future. New analytical tools supported by revised conceptual frameworks are needed to assist identification and assessment of future development options. This article is based on a book published earlier this year. It presents and discusses the current patterns of change and their implications for policy. Three major policy challenges are identified: integration of agricultural and environmental policies; pro-active approaches to landscape change to cope with non-agricultural demands including recreation and nature conservation; and stakeholder involvement in policy design and implementation including farmers and other primary managers, public agencies at all levels and local communities in various forms. Key points are illustrated in a case study involving the development of a landscape strategy in the Karby parish in northwest Denmark.

In consultation with partners from the HWBP project Grebbedijk, Rijkswaterstaat Oost-Nederland (RWS-ON) has commissioned Wageningen Environmental Research (WENR) for an exploratory studyto create an action perspective for the upcoming introduction of the Environmental Act and the introduction at RWS of the term “Sustainable Living Environment”. In 2018, in-depth interviews were held with project leaders of river widening and dyke improvement projects and with RWS advisers. The report includes a case study of the Grebbedijk, starting with a historical analysis. The integral approach and the participatory approach have been studied in more detail on the basis of the “Dijkversterking Grebbedijk” project of 2016-2018. The emphasis was on the participative, spatial design process that was used in this dyke improvement project. Conclusions include that structural reflection helps with complex processes and with the introduction of new methods such as the new Environment Act; and that trust and reliability are crucial in complex dyke improvement projects Rijkswaterstaat Oost-Nederland (RWS-ON) heeft, in samenspraak met partners uit het HWBP-project Grebbedijk, aan Wageningen Environmental Research (WENR) opdracht gegeven voor een verkennende studie om handelingsperspectief te bieden voor RWS voor de aanstaande invoering van de Omgevingswet en de invoering bij RWS van het begrip “Duurzame Leefomgeving”. In 2018 zijn diepte-interviews gehouden met projectleiders van rivier verruimende en dijkversterkingsprojecten en met RWS-adviseurs. In het rapport is een casestudie gedaan naar de Grebbedijk, te beginnen met een historische analyse. De integrale benadering en de participatieve aanpak zijn nader bestudeerd aan de hand van het project “Dijkversterking Grebbedijk” van 2016-2018. Daarbij is de nadruk gelegd op het participatieve, ruimtelijke ontwerpproces dat in dit dijkversterkingsproject is ingezet. Conclusies zijn onder andere dat structurele reflectie helpt bij complexe processen en bij de introductie van nieuwe werkwijzen zoals de nieuwe Omgevingswet en dat vertrouwen en betrouwbaarheid cruciaal zijn in complexe dijkversterkingsprojecten.

In recent decades the intensification of agricultural production in many European countries has been one of the key components of land-use change. The impact of agricultural intensification varies according to national and local contexts and a greater understanding of the drivers of intensification will help to mitigate against its negative impacts and harness potential benefits. This paper analyses changes in land use intensity in six case studies in Europe. A total of 437 landowners were interviewed and their responses were analysed in relation to changes in land use intensity and agricultural production between 2001 and 2011. In the case studies in Western and Eastern Europe we observed stabilisation during the last decade, and no clear tendency of increase or decrease of land use intensity. The use of fertilizers and pesticides seems to have decreased in our cases in Western Europe, which is contrary to trends in Eastern Europe. Agricultural production remained stable in almost all cases, except for an increase in Austria and Romania which may indicate that the farming efficiency has increased. A statistical analysis showed a division between study areas in Romania and Austria (increasing land use intensity) versus those in the Netherlands, Denmark and Greece (decreasing). In the Mediterranean cases we observe a process where agriculture is becoming increasingly marginalised, at the same time as changes in function with regard to urbanisation and recreational land uses have taken place. Logistic regression highlighted the importance of farm size and farmer type in understanding changes in land use intensity. The dominant pattern of stabilisation which has occurred over the past 10 years may also partly be a result of effective EU and national environmental and agricultural policies, which are increasingly concerned with improving environmental conditions in rural areas.

European rural landscapes as we experience them today are the result of ongoing processes and interactions between nature and society. These are changing fast: the future landscapes will be different from those we know currently. Written for academics, policy-makers and practitioners, this book is the first to explore the complex histories of rural landscapes in Europe as a basis for their sound governance in future. Tensions between the needs of agricultural spaces driven by economic incentives and a variety of non-agricultural functions are explored to demonstrate current challenges and the shortfalls in the policies that address them. Using inspiring case studies that highlight the roles of regional agents and communities, the authors go further than the usual analyses to illustrate the importance of local context. Written by experts currently working to revitalise the rural landscapes of Europe, the text concludes with suggestions for improving landscape policy and planning practice.

European land use and land management has entered a critical decision space, a limited time window to plan for—and move towards—a sustainable use of the land (Rounsevell et al. 2012; EEA 2017). This complex challenge to better manage Europe’s natural capital will require improved governance (Adger et al. 2003; European Commission 2011), supportive policy and planning (Hodge 2016; Borrass et al. 2017), innovative technologies and business models (Rantala et al. 2018) and societal support for the required changes (Latour 2017). It is therefore imperative to explore alternative visions—i.e. positive descriptions of a desired future (Rounsevell and Metzger 2010; Van Zeijts et al. 2017)—to understand what this sustainable land use future could look like and to evaluate the pathways that can lead us to these visions (Rounsevell et al. 2012).

This paper addresses current changes in the highly diverse Europeanlandscape, and the way these transitions are being treated in policy andlandscape management in the fragmented, heterogeneous and dynamiccontext of today’s Europe. It appears that intersecting driving forces areincreasing the complexity of European landscapes and causing polarisingdevelopments in agricultural land use, biodiversity conservation and culturallandscape management. On the one hand, multifunctional rural landscapes,especially in peri-urban regions, provide services and functions that servethe citizens in their demand for identity, support their sense of belongingand offer opportunities for recreation and involvement in practical landscapemanagement. On the other hand, industrial agricultural production onincreasingly large farms produces food, feed, fibre and energy to serveexpanding international markets with rural liveability and accessibility asa minor issue. The intermediate areas of traditionally dominant small andfamily farms in Europe seem to be gradually declining in profitability. Thepaper discusses the potential of a governance approach that can cope withthe requirement of optimising land-sharing conditions and communitybasedlandscape development, while adapting to global market conditions

This paper explains the genesis of the Seeing heritage through the lenses of landscape session organised at the LAC 2014 conference by the CHeriScape network. It introduces seven papers presented at the conferences (and summarises three others), contextualising them in the symbiotic relationship between landscape and heritage within modern European society, and draws from them, under the general themes used in the CHeriScape network, a series of common threads and conclusions that contribute to CHeriScape’s agenda. The discourse is located within the frame of three recent European policy documents, the European Landscape Convention, the Faro Convention on the Value of Cultural Heritage for Society and the ESF/COST Science Policy Briefing on landscape. The conclusions form part of the process of increasing the social relevance of landscape archaeology and its potential contribution to the grand challenges commonly identified in current policy-making debates.

While considerable progress has been made in understanding land use change, land system science continues to face a number of grand challenges. This paper discusses these challenges with a focus on empirical land system studies, land system modelling and the analysis of future visions of land system change. Contemporary landscapes are contingent outcomes of past and present patterns, processes and decisions. Thus, empirical analysis of past and present land-use change has an important role in providing insights into the socio-economic and ecological processes that shape land use transitions. This is especially important with respect to gradual versus rapid land system dynamics and in understanding changes in land use intensity. Combining the strengths of empirical analysis with multi-scale modelling will lead to new insights into the processes driving land system change. New modelling methods that combine complex systems thinking at a local level with macro-level economic analysis of the land system would reconcile the multi-scale dynamics currently encapsulated in bottom-up and top-down modelling approaches. Developments in land use futures analysis could focus on integrating explorative scenarios that reflect possible outcomes with normative visions that identify desired outcomes. Such an approach would benefit from the broad and in-depth involvement of stakeholders in order to link scientific findings to political and societal decision-making culminating in a set of key choices and consequences. Land system models have an important role in supporting future land use policy, but model outputs require scientific interpretation rather than being presented as predictions. The future of land system science is strongly dependent on the research community's capacity to bring together the elements of research discussed in the paper, via empirical data collection and analysis of observed processes, computer simulation across scale levels and futures analysis of alternative, normative visions through stakeholder engagement. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd.

Due to freshwater supplement scarcity and heavy human activities, the fresh water wetland ecosystem in Yellow River Delta is facing disintegrated deterioration, and it is seriously affecting the health of the Yellow River ecosystem. This paper identifies the restoration objectives of wetland aiming to protect ecological and economic values and development as well as the water resources of the Yellow River. The hydraulic and groundwater coupling model and Landscape Ecological Decision and Evaluation Support System (LEDESS) of the Yellow River Delta were established to calculate environmental flows of degraded wetlands. LEDESS is a computer-based model developed and used to assess and evaluate the effects of land-use changes on nature. In this study, LEDESS is used to assess and evaluate the ecological effects and the restoration possibilities considering several environmental flows' supplement scenarios. This included the changes of suitable habitat conditions and its ecological carrying capacities for indicator species, e. g., Red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis), Oriental stork (Ciconia boyciana), and Saunder's gull (Larus relictus), and changing of ecological patterns. The results showed that replenishing fresh water to wetlands is one of the effective adaptive measures to mitigate wetland degradation and improve its habitat quality and carrying capacities. This study indicated that landscape ecology approach is not only considered as a good way to solve complex problems in ecosystem management but also can be used to decide on the environmental flows and assess its ecological effects in large-scale wetland rehabilitation. This integrated method could make environmental flows estimated and assessment more rational than the results of hydrologic methods. It could assist decision makers to "see" the ecological effects after water supplementing and so alleviate the contradictions between environmental flows and production water demands, and can facilitate the implementation of environmental flows in most countries with water resources shortage.

The Yellow River Delta occupies an important position in the global ecosystem because of its valuable wetland habitat resources for migratory birds on the Eastern Pacific migration route. However, it has suffered from severe land degradation because of soil salinization. This paper assesses the distribution maps of saline soils during the past two decades, using field observations at three points in time using remote sensing images for the same periods, in combination with spatial models. Soil salinization appears to have expanded from the coastline to inland areas of the Yelow River Delta at a surprising speed during that period. The spatio-temporal dynamics of the groundwater table and total dissolved solids (TDS) during the last 20 years were analyzed using maps based on Kriging interpolation. Kriging helped substantially to improve the accurateness of the predicted values of soil salt content, using a random subsample of the observation points as validation basis. Correlation analysis of the spatial data revealed that the distribution and evolution of saline soils are closely related to the dynamics of groundwater: the aggravation of soil salinization is associated with a rising groundwater table and increasing TDS. Insufficient recharge of the groundwater with fresh surface water due to reduced Yellow River discharge and subsequent seawater intrusion are therefore serious environmental problems in the Yellow River Delta ecosystem. Copyright (c) 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The concept of landscape identity is often referred to in landscape policy and planning. A clear definition of the concept is lacking however. This is problematic because the term ‘landscape identity’ can have many different meanings and thus easily lead to confusion. We define landscape identity as ‘the perceived uniqueness of a place’ and endeavour to describe the content of this definition more concisely. Within this context the paper introduces the framework of the Landscape Identity Circle for the various dimensions of landscape identity based on two axes: differentiation between spatial as opposed to existential identity, and differentiation between personal and cultural landscape identity. This framework is valuable in positioning research approaches and disciplines addressing landscape identity.

Although not new, resilience thinking is one of the upcoming ways of reflection adopted to assess the sustainability of ecosystems and landscapes. Resilience is defined as ‘the capacity of socio-ec...

This article describes a multidisciplinary approach to assessing potential vegetation types. The relation between vegetation distribution as derived from field survey and habitat characteristics in the Yellow River Delta (YRD) was analyzed using detrended canonical correspondence analysis (DCCA). The three-dimensional groundwater numerical simulation model MODFLOW yielded an accurate distribution of the shallow groundwater table within the study area. Groundwater table and soil salinity appeared to have the largest influence on the distribution patterns of specific indicator species. The quantitative relationships between species presence and environmental factors were further explored using logistic regression, allowing for the prediction of potential species distribution in relation to fluctuations in groundwater depth and soil salinity. Based on this, potential distribution maps for specific plant species and their communities were generated using ArcGIS. The potential vegetation map was compared to the actual vegetation map (interpreted from SPOT imagery), which leads to a discussion of the main factors responsible for fragmentation and degradation of the local vegetation system

Aim Aspects of connectivity and continuity operating in the River Meuse were analysed for their contribution to the biodiversity of the floodplain. From this analysis of the diversity and composition of the meadow communities, we aimed to derive effective biodiversity conservation strategies. Location The River Meuse is one of the larger rivers in the European Western Plains ecoregion. The alluvial plains of the river have a long history of cultivation, and for these plains the floodplain meadow vegetation is a highly appreciated and valuable nature conservation asset. Method We sampled floodplain meadows from 400 km of the six geomorphic reaches of the middle to lower course of the River Meuse. For each, 50 vascular plant relevés were recorded, representing the spectrum of floodplain meadow communities of that reach. Beta diversity was calculated to quantify similarity in species pools between the reaches. A dissimilarity formula was used to determine the turnover between the reaches, and these dissimilarities were compared with a Mantel test to detect whether species composition of the floodplain meadows exhibited connectivity and continuity between the reaches. Species richness for the floodplain vegetation data of the reaches was compared with data for riparian invertebrate communities. The vegetation data sets were ordinated using detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) to reveal patterns in the floodplain meadow species composition, and the DCA axes were related to plant functional groups and population strategies. The axis scores of the species and plots were linked to river and plant species traits. Results We did not observe an overall continuity trend in similarity, nor one in diversity in a downstream direction. Lateral connectivity was highlighted by the dissimilarity between the reaches and in the influxes of species from adjacent ecoregions. The DCA ordination showed statistically significant separations between reaches and between the plant functional groups. The second DCA axis related to the longitudinal gradient of the river, whereas the first axis showed stronger correlations with river and plant species traits. We termed this axis the 'disorder axis'. Plant invaders and avoiders are located at the left side of the disorder axis, whereas the true river-adapted categories of resisters and endurers are at the right extremity. Contributions to the disorder were identified in terms of connectivity with adjacent ecoregions and the physical disturbance regime of natural and anthropogenic perturbations, resulting in community changes between the reaches. Main conclusions We concluded that a single overall strategy for biodiversity conservation of the river or its floodplains is not feasible. Strategies can, however, be derived for separate river reaches based on functional groups in the communities, the disorder characteristics of the reach, and the influence of surrounding ecoregions.

The idea that landscape has been created by human activities on a biophysical basis allows for clear cause-effect reasoning. However, landscape planning and management practice learns that it is impossible to neglect the social perception of landscape, i.e. the ways people think about nature and landscape. It is the result of social research and human sciences of the last decade that a differentiation in views of nature and landscape can be identified in the different groups of social actors in the landscape. Case studies from France and the Netherlands show a marked change in values attributed to nature and landscape in the end of the last century. Social demand for landscape is growing and a shift from a functional image of nature and landscape to a more hedonistic image like the Arcadian and wilderness images has taken place. Comparing the Netherlands with France and rural with urban inhabitants, the influence of urbanisation is evident in this process. It is further shown that images of nature vary considerably between for example farmers, urban residents, hunters and conservationists. The way people perceive landscape seems determined by their functional ties with the landscape and the social praxis in which they encounter the landscape. It is concluded that the concept of landscape is nearer to the lifeworld of people than the abstract notions of nature and biodiversity. This implies a big challenge both for national and international landscape policies and for local landscape management initiatives to be developed, taking into due consideration both the material and immaterial nature of landscape.

Reflecting on the other papers in this special issue, this synopsis characterises some essential trends in European Landscape Ecology, including the challenges it is facing in society. It describes the various perspectives on the 'contents' of landscape that are currently being practiced, and especially considers the notion of 'environment' as something intrinsic to human activity. Landscape classification and typology are discussed in their potential but limited use for landscape science. The specificity of the European approach appears to be related to the large diversity of cultural landscapes, currently losing their functional ties with the land-use systems that had formed them. European landscape research reports show a large commitment to this decreasing diversity, a dedication characterised by a strong sense of 'loss and grief'. On the other hand, it is concluded that European landscape research has a specific niche with a clear focus on applied landscape studies explicitly including people's perceptions and images, as well as the participation of the public and stakeholders. Since globalisation tends to reinforce the detachment of people from their environment; an increased effort is needed to compensate for this effect, and therefore the consideration of the various dimensions of the landscape is today more pertinent than ever. Meeting the challenges of present landscapes, in the face of new multifunctional demands in old diverse landscapes, requires more than before the combination of various perspectives and methods, and of various scales of application, in order to design innovative and adaptive paths for the future.

Policy makers are confronted with the question of how to combine sustainable flood protection and floodplain rehabilitation in the best possible way. Both topics deal with spatial planning aspects in a range of scales. This question was the starting point for the development of an evaluation method within the IRMA/SPONGE project INTERMEUSE, illustrated on the basis of assumed flood protection strategies in the Meuse river basin (the sponge strategy, the retention strategy, and the floodplain lowering or winter bed strategy). The integration of flood protection and floodplain rehabilitation can be performed on two scale levels that are interrelated: on the regional level the focus is on (large parts of) an entire stream basin; on the local level specific site conditions are taken as starting point. Ecological aspects under study are spatial cohesion of habitats as identified by species population persistence modelling (regional, longitudinal level) and required habitat quality for carabid beetles and for meadow vegetation gradients as assessed by correspondence analysis (local, transversal level). The carabid beetles are taken as indicative for the ecological integrity of the river bed, the meadow vegetation for that of the floodplain. A unifying concept in the evaluation of ecological integrity is the ecological minimum: the critical boundary or minimum level of habitat conditions for a potentially good ecological functioning. It is the least acceptable state for a river ecosystem that is still functional to some extent, compared to a natural river ecosystem. The results of this study show clearly that there is a good chance to combine floodplain rehabilitation aims with flood protection activities, both on a local and on an international scale. Although ecological effect assessment and ecological optimizing (referring to a natural reference state) remain basic, additionally the assessment of the ecological minimum helps to define design strategies for integrated flood protection, especially in situations where there is an opportunity for river rehabilitation.

Статья посвящена оценке восприятия различными группами населения социально-экономических и экологических проблем развития Волгоградской области. На основе собственного социологического исследования, проведенного в 33 районах и 6 городах области, выявлены приоритетные вопросы развития для городской и сельской местностей. На уровне административных районов проведен пространственный анализ по степени удовлетворенности жизнью населением, The article is devoted to evaluation of local inhabitant’s perception toward socio-economic and environmental problems of development in the Volgograd region. The most important issues for certain areas have been revealed based on author’s sociological research held in 33 rural and 6 urban districts. The spatial analysis of level of life satisfaction is made for municipalities of the region

While the identification of High Nature Value (HNV) farmland is possible using the different types of spatial information categories available at European scale, most data used is still too coarse and therefore only provides an approximate estimate of the presence of HNV farmland. This paper describes two promising methods using remote sensing – one for HNV farmland identification and one for change detection within HNV farmland. The performance of the two methods is demonstrated by detailed results for two case studies – the Netherlands for the HNV farmland identification, and Bulgaria for change detection within HNV farmland. An estimation of the presence of HNV farmland or of HNV farmland change can well be based on high-resolution satellite imagery, but the classification method must be adapted to regional characteristics such as field size and type of landscape. The temporal variability and bio-climatological characteristics across Europe do not allow for a simple European classification of HNV farmland. Also comparison between years is complicated because of the large impact of seasonal variation in the land cover expression and the complexity of the HNV farmland definitions. Although HNV farmland detection methods are promising, remote sensing alone does not yet provide the appropriate tools for adequate monitoring.

This special issue reports some of the highlights of the conference Living Landscape – The European Landscape Convention in Research Perspective, organised jointly by UNISCAPE and Landscape Europe ...

Based on literature and six country studies (Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Netherlands, Sweden, Slovakia) this paper discusses the compatibility of the EU 2020 targets for renewable energy with conservation of biodiversity. We conclude that increased demand for biomass for bioenergy purposes may lead to a continued conversion of valuable habitats into productive lands and to intensification, which both have negative effects on biodiversity. On the other hand, increased demand for biomass also provides opportunities for biodiversity, both within existing productive lands and in abandoned or degraded lands. Perennial crops may lead to increased diversity in crop patterns, lower input uses, and higher landscape structural diversity which may all have positive effects on biodiversity. In production forest opportunities exist to harvest primary wood residues. Removal of these forest residues under strict sustainability conditions may become economically attractive with increased biomass demand. An additional biomass potential is represented by recreation areas, road-side verges, semi-natural and natural areas and lands which have no other use because they have been abandoned, polluted or degraded. Whether effects of cropping of biomass and/or removal of biomass has positive or negative impact on biodiversity depends strongly on specific regional circumstances, the type of land and land use shifts involved and the associated management practices in general. However, it is clear that in the six countries studied certain types of biomass crops are likely to be more sustainable than others.

Stakeholders currently put much emphasis on participatory processes in landscape planning procedures. This poses a special challenge for research. What role does research play in our present world characterised by complexity, competing claims and development needs, and an increased concern for climate change and environmental impact? In the book 'Knowledge in Action' we explore different types of transdisciplinary research that scientists engage in. Depending on the societal context and the interests of local citizens, researchers apply different research approaches to optimally incorporate the various points of view in their research and promote processes enhancing dialogue and shared results. In the book authors present their research experiences: their theoretical inspiration, the research methodology applied to consult, share and collaborate with societal actors in order to create options for change. The book includes several striking examples from The Netherlands (both successful and less effective), and also innovative examples from communities in Africa and Asia. The authors reflect on opportunities, problems and dilemma's they had to deal with. They especially address how far the role and theoretical perspectives of collaborative researchers can lead them in action research. Can they limit themselves to joint knowledge production and learning processes or should they engage in strategic positioning, advocacy and entrepreneurship to make it happen? The book discusses the issues that researchers should consider when they position their research activities within ongoing developments at landscape level.

Sustainable landscape development means researchers have to engage in collaborative research to find an informed, ethical and locally-valued balance between ecological resilience and societal pursuits, and build the capacity for co-ordinated adaptive management of the involved stakeholders and governance institutions. In this last chapter we analyse the collaborative research processes, or so-called boundary-spanning-processes, of the case chapters. The timing and the type of boundary objects and methods used more or less define the level of participation of social stakeholders and the role and function of the researcher in the ongoing societal learning, negotiation and innovation process. The cases show the variety of functions and knowledge broker strategies pursued. From the chapters it is not clear whether all research efforts led to concrete impacts; several authors highlighted dilemma’s and bottlenecks that they found hard to deal with. We note that each type of problem and context setting requires a specific type of inquiry (theoretical system perspective), researcher role and boundary process, and to be effective the latter should evolve in line with the iterative societal learning, negotiation and innovation process. To be effective, collaborative researchers cannot limit themselves to ‘knowledge production for action’, but need to engage in ‘knowledge production in action’. They have to analyse the situation and embed their research in the ongoing change process; to opt for a multiple-dimensional, flexible research approach, and to wisely combine various types of system thinking and the respective paradigmatic assumptions. With enough background knowledge on various system approaches, continuous monitoring and reflection, collaborative researchers may become competent performers, but at the end of the day collaborative research is an art. Experts have a holistic perspective, ‘a feel’ for nuances and apply creative thinking in action.

Ecohydrology, the interdisciplinary field of research directed to the application of hydrological knowledge to landscape ecology, is introduced to evaluate a test data set of 412 analyses of groundwater samples from 60 locations in a Dutch coversand area, numerically classified into 17 water types. Three types of simple groundwater quality classification are identified: single parameter, combined parameter and multiparameter. Single quality parameters like pH, electrical conductivity (EC) and ion concentration values, are rarely used in ecohydrology. The representation of the complex conditional relationships between groundwater and the living part of ecosystems with these parameters is unsatisfactory, as also proved with the test data set. It is difficult to differentiate groundwater types reliably on the basis of one single parameter. Combined quality parameters which are widely used are a pH-EC plot, a plot of pHCO3 vs. (pH-pCa), after Kemmers, and an IR-EC plot after van Wirdum, where the ionic ratio (IR) is a Ca ( Ca + Cl ) ratio. The latter two parameters indicate the residence time of the groundwater sampled as well as the hydrochemical conditions related to vegetation distribution and development. The IR is very popular for discriminating between atmocline (precipitation-like) and lithocline (long-residence groundwater-like) water types. In the test data set, objections to its use are discussed with regard to the conditions assumed in its application. Especially in the intermediate IR range, which should indicate potentially marked ecologic gradients, its theoretical basis is narrow. However, general relationships can be deduced from the IR-EC plot. In the test data set as well as in the general Dutch setting, the transformation of atmocline into lithocline water types determines to a large extent ecosystem diversity, although a third, metacline, pollution-induced water type increasingly interferes. Finally, multiparameter classification of groundwater types is discussed. Statistical classification gives good results but is site specific. It is recomended that efforts be combined in the search for an internationally applicable composite classification adapted to ecohydrological research.

This introductory chapter presents an overview of the book Europe's Living Landscapes . The book treats the current crisis in landscape quality as a challenge for action and research; in agreement with the European Landscape Convention, which stresses the importance of safeguarding all landscapes. To counteract global trends initiatives are being taken in many places, in conjunction with local efforts, to allow new living landscapes to emerge on the basis of the existing values. Landscape is one of the most fascinating assets of Europe. Its great diversity reflects a multitude of historical layers in an intricate spatial pattern. The emerging development of integrated science is a significant asset for the study of landscapes and in the search for solutions for the complex problems related to the deterioration of values and functions, multifunctional land use, abandonment of regions, local to global transformations, and rapidly changing and highly diverse societal needs and demands. Keywords: agriculture; biodiversity; Europe; European Landscape Convention; landscape ecology; nature conservation; spatial pattern

Landscape is one of the most fascinating assets of Europe. The great diversity in landscapes reflects a multitude of historical layers. This book presents the story of some of the most expressive European landscapes. It explores how engagement may safeguard and improve landscape identity for the future.

This concluding chapter presents an overview of the book Europe's Living Landscapes , which treats the current crisis in landscape quality as a challenge for action and research. The book discusses many landscapes, where some of them beautiful, some of them sustainable, and some with serious problems. There are inspiring examples of work undertaken on behalf of the landscape, together with the people who are connected to it. Numerous questions have been posed in the book and many answers have been given. That landscape remains one of Europe's most fascinating assets is confirmed in the book. Some interesting new ideas are advanced in the book for raising awareness. The study of landscape paths is proposed as a way to make landscape characterisation less abstract, and to allow a better understanding of landscape character and the identity of places, by both scientists and citizens. Keywords: European landscape; landscape management; sustainable farming

In the European context, multifunctionality is considered one of the goals of agriculture. It can present an alternative strategy besides the dominant trend to minimize labour input. Production of food can be combined with social functions, like providing space for recreation, the care for landscapes or the care for disabled or less privileged people. This chapter considers the question whether the approach to Farming for Health could also include care and therapy for nature and landscape. It appears from sociological surveys that landscape quality is generally associated with small-scale farming. On the other hand, the reasons for farmers to take care of nature and landscape consciously much depend on personal motivation. Traditional family farms usually have less time and financial support to integrate such aims than farms that integrate clients in their farming system. A survey among 48 German care farms with former drug addicts – only few of them traditional family farms – confirms that a majority of them regard landscape and nature management as preferred activities for their clients. The sense of handwork, the great variety of different tasks, natural rhythms of growth, the connection to nature and the contact with animals are reported as significant contributions to restore identity and self-esteem. Taking this seriously, Farming for Health has a large potential to enhance landscape quality.

In integrated river management in western Europe, scientific, technological and political developments have led to an understanding that the immense social chances and constraints related to river management should be approached in a systematic and interactive way

Landscape has of old been perceived as a complex whole, studied by a wide range of disciplines. As a result, in our understanding, it has a wide range of aspects coming together, ranging from those covered by the natural sciences to those covered by the social sciences and the human sciences (Van Mansvelt & Van der Lubbe 1999), or, in other words, covered both by the geo-bio-sphere as well as the noosphere (Tress 2000). Early in the 20th century Carl O. Sauer formulated it as follows: “The cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural landscape by a culture group. Culture is the agent, the natural area is the medium and the cultural landscape is the result” (Sauer 1925). People thus produce landscape.

In the discussion on river restoration, an interesting change is gradually taking place in the way river ecologists and hydrologists are being consulted. Traditionally, ecologists were engaged mainly in the survey of remaining natural assets and on the prediction of environmental effects. This has greatly enhanced nature conservation. Currently, often the question is posed in a different way. Simple rehabilitation is generally impossible, because of river regulation, land use, changed water quality, water quantity management and even climate change. Therefore, the objective reference for nature rehabilitation is not available, and should be defined by the researchers engaged in river restoration themselves. This is not an easy task, especially since science is supposed to be objective and to present to policy makers the research results on which they can base their decisions. Nevertheless, more and more, ecologists together with river hydrologists accept the challenge and start designing targets for river restoration in a scientific way.

The round table discussion took place over two evenings and involved five scientists who are experienced in fields related to heredity and gene technology. They commented on their scientific and personal motives for the work they do. On the first evening the chairman focused his questions on the success side of the story and on the enthusiasm which motivates these individuals in their work in the field of genetic engineering. On the second evening, the dilemmas they face in their work with genetic engineering, the ethical questions and their future goals were discussed. The contrasting perspectives of the participants in these discussions gave a many-sided view of the scientific, ethical, social and personal approaches of people in biotechnology and its associated disciplines. All panellists described vividly the events in their biographies when they became enthusiastic about the efforts of genetic engineering.